3. The modal verbs

The modal verbs are: will, would, can, could, may, might, shall, should, must. Modal verbs have meanings relating to ideas such as possibility, likelihood, prediction, necessity, permission and obligation. They do not have to-infinitive, -s, -ing or past participle forms. They are often followed by the bare infinitive of another verb (e.g. She might go) but can also be used on their own (e.g. Yes, I can). They cannot be followed directly by a to-infinitive, an -ing form, a past participle, or another modal verb. In questions they come before the subject (e.g. Could you help?) and before not in negatives (e.g. He won't (= will not) help). The semi-modals are: ough: to, used to, need, dare, had better, have (got) to, be able to. These have meanings like modal verbs but not the same formal features: for example, some can be marked for tense (e.g. have/ had (got) to)-, some have non-modal uses (e.g. She needs a rest).

When we say that someone or something has or doesn't have the ability to do something, we use can('t) (for the present;) or could(n't) (for the past).

 I can do it tomorrow

She couldn't drive when she was 15.

We prefer be able to when we talk about a specific achievement (particularly if it is difficult, requiring some effort) rather than a general ability. Where there is a choice, in speech we generally prefer can or could rather than be able to.

He wasn't able to solve that problem.

We use will and will not (won't) to talk about (un)willingness and also to make offers, requests, refusals, and to give instructions.

 It will probably rain soon.

We can use would to make a prediction about an imaginary situation; that is, about something that may or may not happen.

You would have a good chance of getting prize.

To talk about things that happened repeatedly in the past, but don't happen now, we can use would or used to + infinitive. Used to is more common in informal English. We can use used to but not would to talk about permanent past states.

In affirmative sentences (that is, sentences which are not questions or negatives) we use may, might, or could with a similar meaning to say that there is a possibility of something happening or being true.

He may have been busy

He might have been sick.

He could have been too tired to go to the party.

When we say that it is necessary to do something, we use must or have (get) to. Sometimes it doesn't matter which we use, although have got to is less formal than either must or have to and is particularly common in spoken English. However, we use must when we want to indicate that the speaker decides that something is necessary and we use have (got) to to suggest that someone else or some outside circumstances or authority makes something necessary.

Natasha must go to the bank today.

He had to rewrite several pages of the report yesterday.

We use needn't (or don't need to) or don't have to to say that something is not necessary and mustn't to say that something is not allowed.

He needn't worry. Everything will be all right

You must not swim in that river. It's full of crocodiles.

We can often use should or ought to with little difference in meaning when we talk about obligation (e.g. in giving advice, making recommendations, or talking about a responsibility, and the probability of something happening or being true).

 Sarah shouldn't smoke so much. It's not good for her health.

Margaret ought to have exercised more so she would be better prepared for the marathon.

(Be) supposed to can be used instead of should/ought to to express a less strong obligation than should. It is also used to report what many people think is true, but should/ought to are not used in this way.

She is not supposed to work on Saturday.

CARD #11

2. The Consumer society

Consumer society - Results for a society in which people often buy new goods especially goods which they do not need and which places a high value on owning many things was not found

Consumer societies are characterized by relatively open exchange, a focus on material wealth, and a belief in progress The modern consumer is not an isolated individual making purchases in a vacuum. Rather, we are all participants in a contemporary phenomenon that has been variously called a consumerist culture and a consumer society. To say that some people have consumerist attitudes or values means that they always want to consume more, and that they find meaning and satisfaction in life, to a large extent, through the purchase of new consumer goods. Consumerism has emerged as part of a historical process that has created mass markets, industrialization, and cultural attitudes that ensure that rising incomes are used to purchase an ever-growing output

In pre-capitalist societies, most households were based on production. Small-scale agriculture and cottage industries existed within the home environment, where residents produced much of the food and goods that they consumed, and sold or traded the rest. In a consumer society, most households are sites of consumption, and produce no goods at all. Many of the institutions that sustain and promote mass consumption first took shape near the end of the 19th century—in the same period, it turns out, when economic theory first gave consumers a central role to play. Department stores appeared in the big cities of England, France, and the United States, creating comfortable semi-public spaces in which consumers could contemplate many different purchases. New packaging technologies were developed, allowing distribution of goods in bags, cans, and bottles. This technological advance made it possible for the first time to create nationally and internationally known "brand names" in the marketing of foods, beverages, cosmetics, and other goods.

Above all, advertising emerged as an essential component of the marketing and distribution of goods. Although advertising has existed as a specialized profession for only about a century, it has become a force rivaling education and religion in shaping public values and aspirations. In the U.S. today, the amount of money spent annually on advertising exceeds total U.S. public expenditures (by federal, state, and local governments) on police protection, natural resources, and higher education combined.

 Another institution created to support the consumer society was expanded consumer credit. Cultural values about spending in the U.S. up through the early 1900s emphasized thrift, prudence, and living within your income. Poorer households were forgiven for using installment purchasing (payments over time) and small loan agencies only if they needed the funds to purchase the necessities of life. Middle-class households borrowed for buying homes and furniture, but other spending for immediate pleasure was frowned upon.

The growth of consumerism has altered the balance between private and public consumption. Public infrastructure has been shaped by the drives to sell and consume new products, and the availability of public and private options in turn shapes individual consumer choices.

Everyone is talking about economic growth and global prosperity nowadays. And we are supposed to benefit from all the advantages of a prosperous society. So why do we fell drained and stressed when we hear about shopping? We have no time for anything other than work and consuming. So, the more we get, the more we consume and the more money we spend on goods. But more spending doesn’t mean that life is getting better. We all know it often means the opposite – greed, deprivation, crime, poverty, pollution. More spending merely feeds our whole economic system, which is based on production and conumption. The love of money – in other word greed has become the evil in our society. Persperately trying to gain financially can lead people to behave in extraordinary way that can damage others and lead to misery. Money has divided our society into classes. It also lead to spiritual and family damage. However, we can’t live without money. Unless money keeps circulating, the economy collapses and the whole system goes into stalemate.

So, what can we do? We need to become far more aware of the results of our actions. We shouldn’t buy strangely cheap clothes that are manufactured in sweat shops by virtual slaves in poor parts of the world. We should learn how to count our money and economies significantly.We need to earn our money honestly and spend it on real needs. Maybe then we all will be happy and will not feel our self stressed and drained.