15. The governmental structure of the usa.

The federal government of the United States is the central government entity established by the United States Constitution, which shares sovereignty over the United States of America with the governments of the individual U.S. states. For official purposes in U.S. courts, the government is sued (and sues others) as "the United States of America," and is referred to simply as "the Government."

The U.S. federal regime dates from 1790 and is considered to be the first modern national federation in the world.[citation needed] Even so, the details of American federalism have been debated since the establishment and ordination of the Constitution, with some parties arguing for expansive national powers, while others have narrowly and strictly interpreted the Constitution's enumeration of the national government's powers.

Since the U.S. Civil War, the powers of the federal government have generally expanded greatly, although there have been periods when states' rights proponents have succeeded in limiting federal power through legislative action, executive prerogative or by constitutional interpretation of the courts.[1][2]

The seat of the federal government is in the District of Columbia.

The Legislative Branch

Congress is the legislative branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House of Representatives consists of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district and serves for a two-year term. In addition to the 435 voting members, there are five non-voting members, consisting of four delegates and one resident commissioner. There is one delegate each from the District of Columbia, Guam, Virgin Islands, and American Samoa, and the resident commissioner is from Puerto Rico.[3] House seats are apportioned among the states by population; in contrast, each state has two senators, regardless of population. There are a total of 100 senators (as there are currently 50 states), who serve six-year terms (one third of the Senate stands for election every two years). Each congressional chamber (House or Senate) has particular exclusive powers—the Senate must give "advice and consent" to many important Presidential appointments, and the House must introduce any bills for the purpose of raising revenue. The consent of both chambers is required to pass any legislation, which then may only become law by being signed by the President; if the President vetoes such legislation, however, both houses of Congress must then re-pass the legislation, but by a two-thirds majority of each chamber, in order to make such legislation law without the need for the President's signature. The powers of Congress are limited to those enumerated in the Constitution; all other powers are reserved to the states and the people.

Executive branch

The executive power in the federal government is vested in the President of the United States,[5] although power is often delegated to the Cabinet members and other officials.[6][7] The President and Vice President are elected as running mates for a maximum of two[8] four-year terms[5] by the Electoral College, for which each state, as well as the District of Columbia, is allocated a number of seats based on its representation (or ostensible representation, in the case of D.C.) in both houses of Congress.

The executive branch consists of the President and delegates. The President is both the head of state and government, as well as the military commander-in-chief and chief diplomat. The President, according to the Constitution, must "take care that the laws be faithfully executed", and "preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution". The President presides over the executive branch of the federal government, a vast organization numbering about 4 million people, including 1 million active-duty military personnel. The forty-fourth and current president is Barack Obama, the first African American president of the United States.

The President may sign legislation passed by Congress into law or may veto it, preventing it from becoming law unless two-thirds of both houses of Congress vote to override the veto. The President may, with the consent of two-thirds of the Senate, make treaties with foreign nations. The President may be impeached by a majority in the House and removed from office by a two-thirds majority in the Senate for "treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors". The President may not dissolve Congress or call special elections but does have the power to pardon, or release, criminals convicted of offenses against the federal government (except in cases of impeachment), enact executive orders, and (with the consent of the Senate) appoint Supreme Court justices and federal judges.

The Vice President is the second-highest executive official of the government. As first in the U.S. presidential line of succession, the Vice President becomes President upon the death, resignation, or removal of the President, which has happened nine times in U.S. history. Under the Constitution, the Vice President is President of the Senate. By virtue of this role, he or she is the nominal head of the Senate. In that capacity, the Vice President is allowed to vote in the Senate, but only when necessary to break a tied vote. Pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment, the Vice President presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College. While the Vice President's only constitutionally prescribed functions, aside from presidential succession, relate to his role as President of the Senate, the office is now commonly viewed as a member of the executive branch of the federal government. The U.S. Constitution does not expressly assign the office to any one branch, causing scholars to dispute whether it belongs to the executive branch, the legislative branch, or both.

The Secretary of State is the Chief Executive Officer of the United States Department of State, the most senior of all federal executive departments. The Secretary of State is the third-highest official of the executive branch of the federal government of the United States, after the President and Vice President. The Secretary is a member of the President's Cabinet and the highest-ranking cabinet secretary both in the presidential line of succession and order of precedence. The Secretary has many duties and responsibilities. The Secretary serves as the President's chief adviser on U.S. foreign policy and as such negotiates, interprets, and terminates treaties and agreements, personally participates in or directs U.S. representatives to international conferences, organizations, and agencies, conducts negotiations relating to U.S. foreign affairs, and is responsible for the administration and management of foreign embassies and consulate offices. Foreign trade missions and intelligence assets report directly to the Secretary of State. The Secretary is also responsible for overall direction, coordination, and supervision of interdepartmental activities of the U.S. Government overseas. The Secretary answers directly to the President of the United States.

he United States Attorney General is the head of the United States Department of Justice (see 28 U.S.C. § 503) concerned with legal affairs and is the chief law enforcement officer of the United States government. The Attorney General is considered to be the chief lawyer of the U.S. government, not simply of the Executive Branch. The Attorney General serves as a member of the President's Cabinet, but is the only cabinet department head who is not given the title Secretary.

The Attorney General is nominated by the President of the United States and takes office after confirmation by the United States Senate. He or she serves at the pleasure of the President and can be removed by the President at any time; the Attorney General is also subject to impeachment by the House of Representatives and trial in the Senate for "treason, bribery, and other high crimes and misdemeanors."

The office of Attorney General was established by Congress by the Judiciary Act of 1789. The original duties of this officer were "to prosecute and conduct all suits in the Supreme Court in which the United States shall be concerned, and to give his advice and opinion upon questions of law when required by the President of the United States, or when requested by the heads of any of the departments."[12] Only in 1870 was the Department of Justice established to support the Attorney General in the discharge of his responsibilities.

The day-to-day enforcement and administration of federal laws is in the hands of the various federal executive departments, created by Congress to deal with specific areas of national and international affairs. The heads of the 15 departments, chosen by the President and approved with the "advice and consent" of the U.S. Senate, form a council of advisers generally known as the President's "Cabinet". In addition to departments, there are a number of staff organizations grouped into the Executive Office of the President. These include the White House staff, the National Security Council, the Office of Management and Budget, the Council of Economic Advisers, the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, the Office of National Drug Control Policy and the Office of Science and Technology Policy. The employees in these United States government agencies are called federal civil servants.

There are also independent agencies such as the United States Postal Service, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the Environmental Protection Agency, and the United States Agency for International Development. In addition, there are government-owned corporations such as the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and the National Railroad Passenger Corporation.

Judicial branch

The Supreme Court is the highest court in the federal court system. The court deals with matters pertaining to the federal government, disputes between states, and interpretation of the United States Constitution, and can declare legislation or executive action made at any level of the government as unconstitutional, nullifying the law and creating precedent for future law and decisions. Below the Supreme Court are the courts of appeals, and below them in turn are the district courts, which are the general trial courts for federal law.

The supreme court of each state is the final authority on the interpretation of that state's laws and constitution.

16. The EU & Ukraine.

Relations between Ukraine and the European Union were established in December 1991, when the Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands as the EU Presidency, on behalf of the Union officially recognized the independence of Ukraine.

The Partnership and Cooperation Agreement between Ukraine and the EU (PCA) signed on 16 June 1994 (entered into force on 1 March 1998) constitutes the legal base of the EU-Ukraine relations and establishes cooperation on a wide range of political, trade, economic and humanitarian issues.

At present there are 7 priorities of the EU-Ukraine cooperation envisaged by the PCA's framework: energy, trade and investments, justice and home affairs, adaptation of the Ukrainian legislation to that of the EU, environment, transport, trans-border cooperation, collaboration in the sphere of science, technology and outer space.

The EU-Ukraine dialogue is carried out through annual meetings of the EU-Ukraine Summit with the participation of the President of Ukraine; Cooperation Council with the participation of the Prime-Minister of Ukraine; Cooperation Committee; Committee on parliamentary cooperation; regular Ukraine-EU Triyka meetings; permanent expert consultations. The EU and Ukraine annually hold more that 80 different official meetings and consultations at the high and expert levels.

The European integration is a key and irreversible priority of Ukraine's foreign policy. In the address to the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine in June 2002 the President of Ukraine outlined the European integration as a streamline of Ukraine's economic and social strategy for the next decade.

Present development of the political dialogue between Ukraine and the EU is based on implementation by Ukraine of the Strategy of integration into the EU, implementation of the PCA and elaboration of the Action Plan in the framework of the European Neighborhood Policy. Ukraine is proceeding form the fact that the implementation of this document should contribute to strengthening cooperation with the EU in the light of enlargement, create necessary preconditions for raising its relations with the Union to a qualitatively new level. Proper implementation of the Action Plan should also facilitate gradual integration of Ukraine into the EU Single Market and create prerequisites for establishing Free Trade Area with the EU. The conclusion of a new enhanced agreement with the EU should become the ultimate political goal of the Action Plan.

Remaining outside the EU borders, Ukraine has successfully associated with the realization of the EU Common Security and Defense Policy (ESDP). Our state takes part in the EU Police Missions in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. The expected conclusion of an Agreement on the security procedures for exchange of classified information and of an Agreement establishing a framework for Ukraine's participation in the EU crisis management operations, should contribute to strengthening legal base of cooperation in this sphere.

The EU also recognizes an important role of Ukraine in providing security and stability on the continent as well as its vast industrial and technological potential in the military sphere. The practice of inviting Ukraine to military training with the participation of the EU units is a clear confirmation of that.

The EU-Ukraine trade and economic cooperation has recently experienced notable intensification. From year to year the bilateral foreign trade turnover and direct EU investment in the Ukrainian economy are constantly increasing. Today the EU is the largest foreign trade partner of Ukraine (the share of the EU in the foreign trade of Ukraine reached 33% upon the accession to the Union of new ten Members-States). In June 2004 the Parties initialed the Agreement on trade in steel products, whose signature is scheduled for the fall this year. According to the Agreement, Ukraine's quota on steel for the year 2004 is amounted to 606 thousand tons. The EU consideration of the correspondence of the Ukrainian economy to the market standards within the framework of the EU antidumping procedures is almost completed.

Ukraine and the EU actively cooperate in the framework of the Working Party on Ukraine's accession to the WTO. The EU side supports Ukraine in multilateral as well as bilateral negotiations within the WTO on the permanent basis. After the conclusion in 2003 of the bilateral Protocol on the access to the markets of goods and services within the framework of the WTO, the parties started elaboration and adjustment of the draft Report of the Working Party.

The EU-Ukraine cooperation in the sphere of justice and home affairs, in particular on the issues of granting asylum, border management, fight against money laundering and illegal drug trafficking is consistently strengthening.

In the context of the EU enlargement Ukraine strives to prevent the creation of a new dividing lines in Europe and advocates non-discriminatory approach to the regime of movement of its citizens across the territory of the EU Member States. The work in this direction in particular includes: perspective introduction of long-term multiply visas for the citizens of Ukraine who take part in economic, cultural and sports exchanges with the EU on a permanent basis; simplification of visa regime for citizens of Ukraine - border areas inhabitants and in the long-term prospect - facilitation of visa regime for all categories of the Ukrainians.

Ukraine and the EU proceed with dynamic cooperation in the sphere of energy, including the nuclear one, agriculture and environment. The EU political and financial assistance to Ukraine in addressing the most urgent problems in the energy sector as well as in mitigating the consequences of the Chornobyl catastrophe is gradually increasing.

The EU has also provided support for reforming the control system of the Ukrainian gas-transporting system, holding technical audit of the oil terminal "Pivdennyi" and technical and economic assessment of the project of transportation of the Caspian oil by Odesa-Brody-Gdansk pipeline, development of the alternative energy and modernization of the coal industry etc.

The EU is the largest donor to Ukraine. Total assistance since 1991 in the framework of the TACIS program, macro financial and humanitarian assistance amounted to more that 1 billion euro.

The EU-Ukraine cooperation in the sphere of outer space is also very promising. Given Ukraine's place among 8 countries demonstrating significant technological background on space programmes, on 2 September 2004 the European Commission sought Council approval for its recommendation to start negotiations on a cooperation agreement with Ukraine on the development of a Civil Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). The cooperation is expected to cover research and scientific activities especially on standardisation issues, regional integrity monitoring and financial investment in GALILEO.

Today Ukraine sees its main task in consolidation of the European values and standards in political, economy and social spheres, regarding it as a pledge of its public stability and sustainable development.

EU relations with Ukraine are based on the Partnership and Co-operation Agreement (PCA) which entered into force in 1998 (for an initial ten year period, after which it is automatically renewed by consent of the parties).

A number of specific agreements in particular policy areas such as trade, science and technology, and nuclear energy are also in place. The TACIS programme has been the framework for technical assistance since the early 1990s, supporting the transition process towards democracy and market economy. The European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument (ENPI) replaced TACIS in 2007.

Ukraine is considered a priority partner country within the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP). A joint EU-Ukraine Action Plan was endorsed by the EU-Ukraine Cooperation Council on 21 February 2005. A revised Action Plan on Justice, Freedom and Security (JFS) endorsed by the Cooperation Council on 18 June 2007 and the related scoreboard (presently being revised) constitute a common basis for a variety of cooperation measures in this field. The JFS Action Plan is part of the overall EU-Ukraine Action Plan According to the European parliament, the EU is seeking an increasingly close relationship with Ukraine, going beyond cooperation, to gradual economic integration and deepening of political cooperation.[1] Ukraine is said to be a priority partner within the European Neighborhood Policy. A joint EU-Ukraine Action Plan was endorsed by the European Council on 21 February 2005. It was based on the Partnership and cooperation agreement of 1994 and provided, according to the European Commission, a comprehensive and ambitious framework for joint of work with Ukraine in all key areas of reform.[1] On June 16, 2009, a new practical instrument was adopted - the EU - Ukraine Association Agenda.[2]

On 22 July 2008, it was announced that a "Stabilisation and Association" -type agreement would be signed between Ukraine and the EU on 8 September 2008 in Evian[3]. Talks on a free trade agreement between Ukraine and the European Union started on 18 February 2008 between the Ukrainian government and the European Commissioner Peter Mandelson.[4]

As of December 2008 44.7% of all Ukrainians find it necessary for Ukraine to enter the European Union and 35.2% see no necessity in Ukraine's entering the EU.[5] In May 2010 more than half of Ukrainians older than 16 supported European Union membership.[6] The current Azarov Government continues to pursue EU-integration.

Late May 2010 President Viktor Yanukovych promised to adopt in June the legislation necessary for creation of a free trade zone between Ukraine and the European Union. Yanukovych expected visas between Ukraine and member-countries of the European Union to be abolished and that a free trade zone will be created by March 2011.[25]

Joining the European Union remains a priority was stated by Prime Minister Mykola Azarov and his cabinet in Spring 2010.

17. The governmental structure of Ukraine

Ukraine is a country under a semi-presidential system with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches. Ukraine has recently undergone an extensive constitutional reform that has changed the balance of power between the executive and legislative branches and their relationship to the President. A reform to local self-government has been suggested, but is yet to be formally approved.