Get ready to speak on the topic. Choose the part according to your specialty.

What Is Engineering?

(1) In general, engineering is a science that deals with de­sign, construction and operation of structures, machines, engines and other devices. Engineer is a person who has received technical education and has a basic knowledge of other engineering fields, because most engineering prob­lems are complex and interrelated. The term engineering is difficult to translate into Russian because it has a lot of meanings. Most often it is translated as: инженерное дело, техника, машиностроение, строительство, железнодорожное дело. There exist several main branches of engineering.

(2) Electrical and Electronics Engineering is the widest field of engineering, concerned with systems and devices that use electric power and signals. Among the most important subjects in the field are electric power and machinery, electronic circuits, control systems, computer design, superconductors, solid-state electronics, robotics, lasers, radar, consumer electronics, and fibre optics. Electrical engineering can be divided into four main branches: electric power and machinery, electronics, communications and control, and computers. Electronic engineering deals with the research, design and application of circuits and devices used in the transmission and processing of information. The revolution in electronics is the trend towards integrating electronic devices on a single tiny chip of silicon or some other semiconductive material. Much of the research in electronics is directed towards creating even smaller chips, faster switching of components, and three-dimensional integrated circuits.

(3) Engineers in Communications and Control field work on control systems and communication systems that are used widely in aircraft, railways and ships, in power transmission and distribution, in automated manufacturing and robotics. Major developments in this field are the replacement of analogue systems with digital systems and copper cables with fibre optics (optical fibres). Digital systems lower electrical noise. Fibre optics lowers interference, has large carrying capacity, and is extremely light and inexpensive to manufacture.

(4) Computer engineering is now the most rapidly growing field. Computer engineers design and manufacture memory systems, central processing units and peripheral devices. Major developments in this field are microminiaturization (design of Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) chips) and new computer architectures. Using VLSI, engineers try to place greater numbers of circuit elements onto smaller chips. Another trend is towards increasing the speed of computer operations through the use of parallel processors and superconducting materials. It is Computer architecture.

(5) A programmer analyst is a person who analyses and designs information systems and designs and writes the application programs for the system. In theory, a programmer analyst is both systems analyst and applications programmer. Which skill is really dominant is of concern when recruiting people with such titles.

(6) Programming means creating a computer program. The steps are: a) developing the program logic to solve the particular problem; b) writing the program logic in a specific programming language (coding the program); c) assembling or compiling the program to turn it into machine language; d) testing and debugging the program; e) preparing the necessary documentation; f) the logic is the most difficult part of programming. Writing the language statements is comparatively easy once the solution has been developed. However, regardless of how difficult the program may be, documenting it is considered the most annoying activity by most programmers.

(7) The design of a computer system sets the standard for all devices that connect to it and all the software that runs on it. It is based on the type of programs that will run (business, scientific) and the number of them run concurrently. It specifies how much memory is needed and how it is managed (memory protection, virtual memory, virtual machine). It specifies register size and bus width (16-, 32-, 64-bit) and how concurrency is handled (channels, bus mastering, parallel processing). Its native language instruction set stipulates what functions the computer performs and how instructions are written to activate them. This determines how programs will communicate with it forever after. The trend toward large, complicated instruction sets has been reversed with RISC computers, which use simpler instructions. The result is a leaner, faster computer, but requires that the compilers generate more code for complex functions that used to be handled in hardware. Fault tolerant operation influences every aspect of computer architecture, and computers designed for single purposes, such as array processors and database machines, require special designs.

(8) CAD (Computer-Aided Design) is using computers to design products. CAD systems are high-speed workstations or personal computers using CAD software and input devices such as graphic tablets and scanners. CAD output is a printed design or electronic input to CAM systems. CAD software is available for generic design or specialized uses, such as architectural, electrical and mechanical design. CAD software may also be highly specialized for creating products such as printed circuits and integrated circuits. CAD systems are often turnkey systems which are put together by vendors that may develop or integrate software into standard or optimized hardware. Except in a few cases, CAD systems rely extensively on graphics.

(9) CAD/CAM (Computer-Aided Design /Computer-Aided Manufacturing) is the integration of CAD and CAM. Products designed by CAD are direct input into the CAM system. For example, a device is designed and its electronic image is translated into a numerical control programming language, which generates the instructions for the machine that makes it. CAM (Computer-Aided Manufacturing) is the automation of manufacturing systems and techniques, including numerical control, process control, robotics and materials requirements planning (MRP).

(10) Software engineering is the design, development and documentation of software. Systems programmer is 1) a technical expert on some or all of the computer's system software (operating systems, networks, DBMSs (DataBase Management Systems), etc.) in the IS department of a large organization. They are responsible for the efficient performance of the computer systems. They usually don't write programs, but perform a lot of technical tasks that integrate vendors' software. They also act as technical advisors to systems analysts, application programmers and operations personnel. For example, they would know whether additional tasks could be added to the computer and would recommend conversion to a new operating or database system in order to optimize performance. In mainframe environments, there is one systems programmer for about 10 or more application programmers, and systems programmers generally have considerably higher salaries than application programmers. In smaller environments, users rely on vendors or consultants for systems programming assistance. In fact, end users are actually performing systems programmer functions when they install new software or hardware on their own personal computers. 2) In a computer hardware or software organization, it is a person who designs and writes system software. In this case, a systems programmer is a programmer in the traditional sense.

(11) copy protection means resistance to unauthorized copying of software. Copy protection was never a serious issue with mainframes and minicomputers, since vendor support has always been vital in those environments. In the early days of floppy-based personal computers, many copy protection methods were used. However, with each scheme introduced, a copy buster program was developed to get around it. When hard disks became the norm, copy protection was abolished. In order to manage a hard disk, files must be easily copied from one part of the disk to another. This is a constant dilemma for software vendors as well as the publishing and broadcasting industries that transmit their content via digital means. Every recipient of a digitally-distributed medium has the ability to reproduce a perfect copy of the original. The only copy protection system that works is the hardware key, which is a plug and socket that is attached to the computer's parallel port with a unique serial number that the software identifies. Hardware keys are used to protect high-priced software, but users are generally not fond of them, because it requires unplugging the printer cable, inserting the hardware key, and plugging back the printer. A system similar to the hardware key designed into the personal computer from day one should have been established. Perhaps some day a solid state software capsule with a digital signature will plug into the computer. In the meantime, anyone who can figure out an economical way to prevent unauthorized duplication of digital material that does not interfere with managing a hard disk or the quality of the original transmission will become the country's first trillionaire!

(12) Telecommunications mean communicating information, including data, text, pictures, voice and video over long distance. Telephony is the science of converting sound into electrical signals, transmitting it within cables or via radio and reconverting it back into sound. Communications mean the electronic transfer of information from one location to another. Data communications refers to digital transmission, and telecommunications refers to analog and digital transmission, including voice and video. The Protocol is the way communications systems "talk to" each other. It is defined in a set of standards called protocols. Protocols work in a hierarchy starting at the top with the user's program and ending at the bottom with the plugs, sockets and electrical signals.

(13) Personal Computer Communications takes several forms. 1) Via Modem Data can be transferred between two distant personal computers by using modems, a telephone line and a communications program in each computer. 2) Between Two Computers Data can be transferred between two local computers by cabling them together with a null modem cable and a file transfer program in each computer. 3) Remote Terminal Personal computers can act like a remote terminal to a mini or mainframe. For example, a 3270 emulation board, such as Attachmate's Irma board, plugs into a personal computer and turns it into an IBM mainframe terminal. 4) NETWORK Personal computers can be part of a Local Area Network (LAN), in which databases and printers are shared among users. If the LAN interconnects with mini and mainframe networks, then personal computers can communicate with larger computers. Increasingly, LANs of personal computers are running applications previously delegated to minis and mainframes. These applications are designed as "client/server" applications, which duplicate the integrity, security and transaction processing requirements of the larger computers.

(14) Minicomputer Communications Systems control as many as several hundred terminals connected to a single computer system. They support a variety of low-speed dial-up terminals and higher-speed local terminals. With larger minicomputers, the communications processing is handled in separate machines, called communications controllers. Minicomputers are designed with communications in mind. The communications programs and operating systems are often integrated and provide simpler operation than mainframes. Minicomputers can connect to a mainframe by emulating a mainframe terminal, in which case, the mainframe thinks it's talking to another user terminal. Minicomputers can connect directly to some LANs, or to all LANs via a gateway, which converts the protocols.

(15) Mainframe Communications Mainframe systems can control several thousand remote terminals. They support a variety of low-speed dial-up terminals and high-speed local terminals. Large mainframes use separate machines, called communications controllers or front end processors, to handle the communications processing. These machines take the data from the mainframes and package it for transmission over the network. They also strip the communications codes from the incoming messages and send pure data to the mainframes for processing. Mainframes set the standards for communications. It's usually up to the mini and micro vendors to provide compatibility with the mainframe systems.

(16) Analog vs Digital Communications The most common form of long-distance communications has been the telephone system, which, up until a few years ago, transmitted only voice frequencies. This technique, known as analog communications, has been error prone, because the electronic frequencies get mixed together with unwanted signals (noise) that are nearby. In analog telephone networks, amplifiers are placed in the line every few miles to boost the signal, but they cannot distinguish between signal and noise. Thus, the noise is amplified along with the signal. By the time the receiving person or machine gets the signal, it may be impossible to decipher it. In a digital network, only two (binary) distinct frequencies or voltages are transmitted. Instead of amplifiers, repeaters are used, which analyze the incoming signal and regenerate a new outgoing signal. Any noise on the line is filtered out at the next repeater. When data is made up of only two signals (0 and 1), it can be more easily distinguished from the garble. Digital is simple!

Computer Software

Word power

Nouns: memory память; drive дисковод; character знак, символ; цифра, буква; extension расширение, добавление; period точка (в конце предложения), период; label

метка, обозначение; volume том (старое название диска); colon двоеточие; portion часть, доля; purpose назначение; цель; намерение; folder папка, каталог; spreadsheet электронная таблица; uppercase верхний регистр; lowercase нижний регистр.

Verbs: contain содержать в себе, вмещать; modify видоизменять, обновлять; refer отсылать; ссылаться; spin вертеть, крутить; convey выражать идею; create создавать, творить; convert переделывать, превращать. Adjectives/ Participles: essential существенный, важный; related имеющий отношение, связанный; executable исполняемый, выполняемый; outside наружная (сторона); внешняя (поверх­ность); internal внутренний; available наличный; доступный; имеющийся в распоряжении; floppy гибкий (диск); expanded расширенная (память); random произвольный (доступ); прямой (доступ); extended дополнительная (память); optional ['OpSqnl] необязательный, факультативный; monthly ежемесячный. Adverbs/ Prepositions/ Conjunctions: accordingly соответственно, таким образом below ниже; внизу. Phrases: set of words набор слов; series of instructions последовательность команд; related information связанная информация; volume label метка тома; drive letter буква (имя) дисковода; conventional memory стандартная (обычная) память; ROM ПЗУ; RAM ОЗУ. Guess the meaning: application; software; contents; hardware; filename; directory; disk drive; read-only; access; computer language; internal name; cassette player; magnetic disk; available memory; expanded memory; extended memory; operating system; word processor.

7.17 Match the following phrases.

to be stored in files to perform a task to contain letters to run the computer to identify the contents to write data to record sounds to read data to put label to play back the data to be referred to

определять содержимое содержать письма быть отосланным к записать звуки нанести метку храниться в файлах воспроизводить данные выполнять задачу запускать компьютер вводить данные считывать данные

a) Dramatize Dialogue 7.18

Terms You Should Know

• What must you do when you are introduced to a new or different idea?

• When you are introduced to a new or different idea you must often learn a new set of words to understand the idea. These words are special terms.

• Why are special words called key words?

• The special terms are the keys to understand the field of science you are learning.

• What two kinds of terms do you know? Give examples, will you?

• There are two kinds of terms: essential and those that are helpful but not essential. The examples of the firsl kind of terms in the field of Computing are memory, file¹, disk², drive³, software, etc. The examples of the second kind are flux (поток), sink (приемник), differentiator (дифференциатор), etc.

• What are the other names of programs? What are the programs stored in?

• Programs, often called application programs, applications, or software are series of instructions written in computer languages. They are stored in files and tell your computer to perform a task.

• What is a file and what could it contain?

• A file is a collection of related information like the contents of a file folder in a desk drawer [drO:]. Files in your disk could contain letters, memos ['mI(:)mqu], or data.

• What files can other disks contain?

• Your other disks may contain files that you have created, or that came with the disk.

• What do the extensions .exe and .com mean and what do they tell MS-DOS?

• Each file on a disk has a name assigned by the user or programmer that is used to identify a file. This name has two parts а filename and extension. filename extensions consist of a period followed by one, two, or three characters. When you look at the directory on your MS-DOS master disk, you will see many files with the extensions .exe or com. The extension .exe means executa­ble and .com means command. These extensions tell MS-DOS that the files are programs that can be run.

• What is a directory and what does it contain?

• Directory is a table of contents for a disk or a simulated file drawer on disk. Programs and data for each application are typically kept in a separate directory; it contains the names of your files, their sizes, and the dates they were last modified.

• I see, thank you ever so much.

• You are welcome.

NB ¹file n. Folder; Computing collection of (usu. related) data stored under one name. ²disk/disc (esp. US & Computing; compact discs and videodiscs are spelled with the "c.") Most computer disks are spelled with a "k;" disk A direct access storage device.

³disk drive n. Computing mechanism for rotating a disk and reading or writing data from or to it.

b) Using the above & below information make up micro dialogues on the topic Computer Software.

NB floppy disk A reusable magnetic storage medium. It is the primary method for distributing personal computer software. It's also used to transfer data between users, although local area networks can eliminate much of this "sneakernet."¹ diskette n. = floppy n. Also called a diskette, the floppy is a flexible disk, similar to tape, with both surfaces used for magnetic recording. The disk drive grabs the floppy's center and spins it inside its housing, and the read/write head makes contact with the surface through an opening in the floppy's envelope, case or cartridge. Floppies are much slower than hard disks, because they spin at 300 rpm², at least one tenth the rotation of a hard disk, and they are at rest until a data transfer is requested. In order of last to first developed, the major types are:

External format Capacity Creator

3.5" rigid case 400KB - 2.8MB Sony

5.25" flexible envelope 100KB - 1.2MB Shugart

8" flexible envelope 100 - 500KB IBM

Although floppy disks look the same, what's recorded on them determines their capacity and compatibility. Each new floppy must be "formatted," which records the sectors on the disk that will hold the data. Many 3.5"³ disk drives can read DOS disks as well as their native format. ¹sneakernet Carrying floppy disks from one machine to another to exchange information, when you don't have a network. ²rpm (Revolutions Per Minute) The measurement of the rotational speed of a disk drive. Floppy disks rotate at 300 rpm, while hard disks rotate from 2,400 to 3,600 rpm and more. ³3.5" (1) Refers to the common 3 ¹/₂ inch microfloppy disk used in personal computers. (2) Refers to disk drives and other devices with a 3 ¹/₂ inch wide form factor.

Dialogue 7.19