Irrigation

1. Learn new words:

advantage – преимущество, выгода

arid – засушливый, безводный, сухой

arable – пахотный

certain – некоторый

choice – выбор

common – общий

cheap – дешевый

compose – составлять

to depend upon – зависеть

to desire – желать

desert – пустыня

to distribute – распределять

discharge – удалять, выпускать, впадать (о реке)

disadvantage – недостаток

drought – засуха

excess – избыток

flood irrigation – полив напуском

furrow – борозда

mist – туман

pipeline – трубопровод

saturation – насыщение

stable – устойчивый

sheet – слой воды

spray – струя

sprinkling – орошение дождеванием

stratum – пласт

subsoil – подпочвенный

precipitation – атмосферные осадки

to wash out – вымывать

to install - устанавливать

2. Read and translate text A:

Text A

Irrigation

Irrigation is the artificial of water to soil to assist in the production of crops. A reclamation engineer must have a good knowledge of the available water supply, its conservation and application to the land, the characteristics and needs of the different types of soil and the requirements of the various crops to be produced.

In general,¹ irrigation is most extensively practiced in arid regions where agriculture without it is impracticable but it is also applied to lands of the semiarid² regions to increase the yield and to special crops in humid regions such as rice, garden flowers and vegetables.

In fact,³ there are comparatively few regions so free from droughts that irrigation would not be profitable if it could be cheaply provided.

The surface of the earth is composed of land and water, the latter being roughly three-fourths of the area and not habitable by man. More than half of the remaining one-fourth of land area is either too cold or too rocky for cultivation and the major portion of the rest is too arid for production of crops.

Thus the area naturally available for cultivation is a very small proportion of the whole. Fortunately, man can increase the area for cultivation by artificially applying water to soil where nature fails to do this. A considerable portion of desert and semi-desert soil is successfully reclaimed in our country.

An irrigated region has certain advantages over a humid region. There is much advantage in being able to apply the water at the proper time and in the quantity needed. There is much advantage in being able o stop application of water at will.⁴

The soils of arid regions are usually better supplied with the mineral plant foods which have not been washed out by excessive rains. Sunlight proving life and growth is more intense and constant in an arid than in a humid region. The yields under irrigation may be made far larger and more stable, than under natural precipitation, proved sufficient care and skill are applied.

Methods of applying irrigation water to arable lands vary with topography, soil conditions, crops grown, value of crop products available, water supply and other factors.

The most common methods of applying water are surface irrigation, subsoil irrigation and sprinkler irrigation.

Surface irrigation includes furrow irrigation and flood irrigation. Under the furrow methods the water from canals or pipelines is fed into furrows between the rows of plants. This method is used for all row crops such as potatoes, maize, sugar-beet etc. Flood irrigation is used for close-growing crops like grains and grasses. The water covers the soil surface in a thin sheet and remains until it is absorbed and the desired saturation is reached.

Subsoil irrigation consists in delivering water underground to a popous stratum of soil through which the moisture spreads to the plant roots. Natural conditions suitable for this method of irrigation are rather limited.

In sprinkler or spray irrigation the water is pulverized over the field in the form of artificial rain or mist. The advantages of this method are as follows: it can be adapted to all crops and to all kinds of soils; it gives uniform distribution of water. The “Fregate”, “Volzhanka”, and “Dnepr” are the most efficient sprinkling installations. This method has some disadvantages: high initial cost of installing sprinkler systems, need for clean water and consumption of extra energy.

Very often drainage works are constructed together with irrigation development parallels irrigation development especially in case of soil salinity.⁵

NOTES

1 in general – вообще

2 semiarid – полузасушливый

3 in fact – фактически

4 at will – по желанию

5 salinity – засоление (почвы)

3. Answer the questions:

1. What is irrigation?

2. What is main advantage of the artificial application of water to soil?

3. What does the choice of a method of irrigation depend upon?

4. What are the most common methods of irrigation?

5. For what crops is the furrow irrigation used?

6. What does flood irrigation consist of?

7. What does subsoil irrigation consist of?

8. What are the advantages of sprinkler irrigation? What are the disadvantages of this method?

9. What are the most efficient sprinkling installations?

4. Match definitions to the following words:

drought, irrigation, drainage, rainfall, precipitation, excess, desert, humid area, arid area, semiarid area

1. Artificial application of water to soil to assist in the production of crops.

2. Removal of excess water and excess salt to make the land fit for cultivation.

3. A long period of lime with insufficient precipitation.

4. A quality that is more than expected or needed.

5. The total amount of rain.

6. The total amount of all forms of falling moisture (rain, snow, hail, etc).

7. An area of land without trees or water often covered with snow.

8. An area that lacks sufficient moisture for agriculture without irrigation.

9. An area that has more moisture than the actual irrigation requirement and where drainage is essential to discharge excessive moisture.

10. An area neither strictly arid nor humid in which irrigation is practiced to increase the yield.

5. Study what other words can come together with. What does each phrase mean?

Arid area, climate, choice, territory, requirement

Successful irrigation of arid regions, reclamation engineer,

research, solution of the problem, humidity

Cheap fertilizer, education, equipment, device, method of

irrigation

Stable harvest, yield, result, condition, position, level

Hard soil, loss, particle, temperature

Sufficient amount, quality, moisture, depth of irrigation, rate

of penetration

Profitable crop, farm, work, investment, skill

Favorable soil conditions, climate, temperature of air, changes,

direction of the wind

6. Say if the sentences are right or wrong according to the text. Use the following conversational formulas:

- that’s right …

- that’s true …

- it is not so …

- I can’t agree with you …

1. Irrigation is extensively practiced in arid regions.

2. Irrigation is not practiced in humid regions.

3. Humid regions have many advantages over arid regions.

4. The yields under irrigation are larger and more stable than under natural precipitation.

5. Excessive application of water reduces crop yields.

6. Large qualities of water are wasted as a result of improper irrigation.

7. Irrigation systems are constructed to discharge excess water and excess salt.

8. Drainage works are constructed to prevent water logging and salinity.

9. It is important to know what is taking place below the soil surface.

7. Form a group of antonyms:

inhabitable, success, advantage, shortage, arid, drainage, the latter, adequate, cheap, insufficient, disadvantages, better, humid, profitable, few, decrease, uninhabitable, worse, excess, irrigation, the former, many, expensive, unprofitable, increase, easy, frequently, inadequate, seldom, hard

8. Read and translate the sentences. Explain meaning of the words and word combinations in italics:

1. There is enough water for crops in the soil.

2. There is sufficient water in the glass for a drink.

3. There is adequate water in the reservoir for an all-year water supply.

4. There is enough water for crops in the soil.

5. The water in the shortage reservoir is inadequate for irrigation purposes.

6. Insufficient quantities of water were applied to the land.

Grammar

Времена группы Perfect

Глаголы в формах Perfect указывает, что действие законченно или закончится к определенному моменту времени в настоящем, прошедшем или будущем.

Глаголы в формах Perfect обычно переводятся на русский язык глаголами в формах прошедшего и будущего времени совершенного вида, чем подчеркивается завершенность действия.

Present Perfect

Present Perfect употребляется для выражения закончившегося времени, когда время совершения его указывается неопределенно, а результат действия на лицо в настоящий момент.

to have (have, has) в настоящем времени + Participle II смыслового глагола

E.g. I have seen a new film.

Past Perfect

Past Perfect употребляется для выражения действия закончившегося до начала другого действия или до указанного момента в прошлом.

had + Participle II смыслового глагола

E.g. I had worked.

Future Perfect

Future Perfect употребляется для выражения действия, которое закончится до начала другого действия или до указанного момента в будущем.

will / shall + have + Participle II смыслового глагола

E.g. They will have returned before you come home.

9. Find the verb in Perfect Tense in each row:

1. a) are determining b) determined c) has determined

2. a) have finished b) is being finished c) finished

3. a) turn b) were turning c) has turned

4. a) had refused b) refused c) refuse

5. a) obtain b) have obtained c) is being obtained

6. a) had offered b) offered c) shall offere

7. a) will be added b) are added c) has added

8. a) will be added b) are added c) has added

9. a) was discovered b) has been discovered c) discovers

10 a) are following b) will follow c) had followed

10. Read, translate and compare these pair of sentences:

1. a) When was the new apparatus installed in the laboratory

b) The new apparatus had installed when the delegation arrived.

2. a) The temperature has maintained at the point of 20 degrees since the beginning of the experiment.

b) During the experiment the temperature was maintained at the point of 20 degree

3. a) They haven’t received any good result.

b) They didn’t receive any good results when they worked with this type of equipment.

11. a) Write the Participle II of these regular verbs, then read them out:

1. compose - …

2. increase - …

3. reclaim - …

4. supply - …

5. wash out - …

6. apply - …

b) Write the Participle II of the irregular verbs, them read them out:

1. to be – was / were - …

2. bring - … - brought

3. do – did - …

4. fall - … - fallen

5. … - made – made

6. hold – held - …

12. Read the text B:

a) Suggest a suitable title for the passages

b) Answer the questions

1. What problem faces the arid parts of the world?

2. Is the consumption of the fresh water increasing from year to year?

3. What portion of fresh water is used for agriculture?

4. What new source of irrigation water have the scientists found?

5. In what form can seawater be used for irrigation?

6. Describe the experiments at the Kostyakov Research Institute?

7. Why seawater can be used for irrigation called a fertilizer?

8. Why are sandy soils best suited for seawater irrigation?

9. What happens on loam soils?

10. Is the area of the experiments fields being increased?

Text B

Where water can be obtained for irrigation is a growing problem in the arid parts of the world. The consumption of fresh water is increasing steadily from year to year and about 80 per cent is used from agriculture. Scientists are looking for a new source and have finally turned to the seas and oceans. Their first idea was to use desalinized water but only recently they tried to use it untreated.

Experiments with seawater began over ten year ago at the Kostyakov Research Institute of Hydro-engineering and Melioration. The first plants used in experiments were sunflower shoots. One plot was irrigated with Black Sea water whose sodium chloride concentration is 13 grams per liter. The control plot was irrigated with tap water in which the same amount of sodium chloride was dissolve. The plants irrigated by sea water were absolutely strong and viable while the other shoots were faded and wrinkled.

Further studies of seawater have shown that it has several features which distinguish it favorably from highly mineralized ground and drainage water. Besides the harmful salts seawater contains components which are a good nutrient for plants; it is rich in oxygen, nitrogen, microelements and organic substances which improve the natural fertility of soil: the seawater used in irrigation is at the same time a fertilizer.

Moreover, seawater is a well-balanced system. Sodium chloride and magnesium chloride (it’s the dangerous components to plants) are easily soluble and their harmful action is offset by the beneficial action of other elements.

But when seawater it used for irrigation, salt may accumulate in the soil. To avoid this danger, soil with high water permeability is best used sand above all. This soil easily lets through the seawater quickly until it reaches a depth where plants will not be harmed.

Where there are loamy soils things are more difficult; if there is no good drainage (natural or artificial), salting is unavoidable.

Now seawater is being tested with many plants and there are of experimental fields is being increased.

13. Speak about Irrigation.

UNIT 9

DROUGHT

1. Repeat these words:

available, to call, conditions, damage, to distribute, to describe, drought, to exceed, to evaporate, to happen, influence, loss, measure, to observe, precipitation, to prevent, proper, to protect, requirement, since, value

2. Learn new words:

to enable – давать возможность

enormous – огромный

to incorporate – включать

insecure – ненадежный

investigation – исследование

humid – влажный

to occur – случаться, происходить

to spend (spent, spent) – тратить

semi-arid – полузасушливый

supplementary – дополнительный

vital – жизненный

whereas – тогда как

3. Read and translate text A:

Text A

Drought

Drought has a devastating effect on the crops and land use of a region. Soil drought can be described as a condition of the soil in which the amount of water needed for transpiration and direct evaporation exceeds the amount available in the soil.

Investigators have shown that a plant usefully spends about one per cent of its moisture for its growth whereas almost 99 per cent of it is spent for transpiration. A plant like a powerful pump transfers an enormous amount of water from the ground and evaporates it through the leaves. For example, one hectare of wheat can pump up to 6.000 cubic meters of water during the vegetative period. This phenomenon called transpiration is of vital importance for plants since it is in this way that they protect themselves from “sunburns”.

Droughts damage the crops when plants are insufficiently supplied with moisture from the soil. The occurrence of drought depends on the annual and seasonal distribution of rainfall, its intensity and the form of precipitation. Moreover, different plants have different moistures requirements. The most fertile lands in our country lie in the south where droughts occur systematically. In Russia about 80 per cent of agricultural lands are situated in the zone with insecure natural moistening. Inadequate amount of water for normal growth of grain crops is observed, as a minimum, every 3-4 years out of 10 in southern, southwestern and eastern areas of the country this happen every year. In the Volga region, this extremely rich black earth area, droughts occurred in 41 out of 51 years. Though man cannot influence climatic conditions and regulate the amount of rainfall, he can prevent loss of moisture in the soil by proper cultivation and by incorporating into the soil large amounts of organic matter helps conserve moisture.

Drought control is an important economic problem in our country. Cultivation practices that improve soil structure and prevent water runoff are effective drought control measures. For the effective use of available moisture for the crops, wed control is of greatest importance.

However, irrigation is man’s best answer to drought. In deserts and arid regions agriculture can develop only under irrigation. In the semi-arid regions irrigation enables the farm to obtain higher yields and to grow a greater variety of crops. In humid areas the value of irrigation is supplementary in times of drought.

4. Answer the questions:

1. What is drought?

2. What effect has drought on crops?

3. What portion of moisture does a plant spend for its growth?

4. What portion of moisture does a plant spend on transpiration?

5. On what does the occurrence of drought depend?

6. Do different plants have different moisture requirements?

7. Can man influence climatic conditions?

8. Can man regulate the amount of rainfall?

9. Can man regulate the amount of rainfall?

10. What are effective drought control measures?

5. Find English equivalents:

- разрушающее влияние

- состояние почвы

- подобно мощному насосу

- огромное количество воды

- в течение вегетационного периода

- форма осадков

- потребность во влаге

- самые плодородные земли

-естественное увлажнение

- чрезвычайно богатая черноземная область

- предотвратить потерю влаги

- борьба с засухой

- меры по борьбе с засухой

- борьба с сорняками

6. Read the text again, then read and circle the correct item:

1. Drought has a devastating effect on …

a) water from the ground.

b) on the crops and land use of a region.

c) economic problem in our country.

2. The most fertile lands in our country …

1. depends on the annual and seasonal distribution of rainfall.

2. are situated in the zone with insecure natural moistening.

3. lie in the south where droughts occur systematically.

3. Drought damage the crops when …

1. when plants are insufficiently supplied with moisture from soil.

2. plants have different moistures requirements.

3. crops, weed control is of the greatest importance.

7. What do the following word-combinations mean?

• amount of water

• direct evaporation exceeds

• spend for transpiration

• enormous amount of water

• vital importance

• insufficiently supplied

• occur systematically

• agricultural land

• natural moistening

• climatic conditions

• improve soil structure

• obtain higher yields

• humid areas

• semi-arid regions

8. Make sentences with following words and phrases:

soil structure, drought control, cultivation practice, fertile lands, annual rainfall, every year, occur systematically

Grammar

Passive Voice

Фомы страдательного залога английских глаголов образуются:

S + to be + Participle II

Structure	Active Voice	Passive Voice
Present Simple is/am/are + P-II	I translate the letter.	The letter is translated.
Past Simple was/were + P-II	I translated the letter yesterday.	The letter was translated yesterday.
Present Continuous am/is/are + being + P-II	I am translating the letter.	The letter is being translated.
Past Continuous was/were + being + P-II	I was translating the letter.	The letter was being translated.
Present Perfect have/has + been +P-II	I have translated the letter.	The letter has been translated.
Past Perfect had + been + P-II	I had translated the letter.	The letter had been translated.
Future Tense will/shall be will/shall be going	I shall/will be translating the letter tomorrow.

Глагол-сказуемое в Passive Voice показывает, что подлежащее является объектом действия со стороны другого лица ли предмета.

Compare: E.g. I bought a book. (Past Simple Active Voice) Я купил книгу. The book was bought. (Past Simple Passive Voice) Книга была куплена.

Глаголы в Passive Voice на Русский язык переводятся:

1. Глаголом «быть» + краткая форма причастия страдательного залога:

E.g. The letter was sent yesterday. Письмо было отправлено вчера.

2. Глаголом с частицей – ся (-сь):

E.g. This problem was discussed last week. Эта проблема обсуждалась на прошлой неделе.

3. Неопределенно-личным оборотом типа «говорят», «сказали»:

E.g. English are spoken in many countries. На английском языке говорят во многих странах.

9. Study pairs of sentences. Why is the form of the verb different?

1. a) Numerous questions were being discussed by the commission.

b) Commission was discussing numerous questions.

2. a) The work on the apparatus is almost finished.

b) The staff of the laboratory is finishing the work on the apparatus.

3. a) The experiments was completed two days ago.

b) He said that the experiment had been completed by the end of the last month.

10. Read and translate the sentences. Put the verbs in brackets in the correct form, active or passive:

1. The positive results … (to be obtained) until a more powerful apparatus was installed.

2. They … (to determine) the main properties of the substance.

3. The explanation of these strange facts … (to be given) yet.

4. He … (to be offered) a very interesting job at that Institute.

5. The problem of the future of human civilization on the Earth is … (to be situated) by the scientists throughout the world.

11. Read the text B:

1. Suggest a suitable title

2. Find information present in the text

- о неравномерном распределении водных ресурсов в Европе

- о том, чем вызван рост водопотребления в Европе

- о потерях воды

- об основном факторе в формировании водного баланса Европы

Text B

Europe, one of the most densely populated and economically developed continents, suffers from the shortage of water. The total number of population of Europe makes about one sixth of the population of the world. The water resources make only 7 pr cent of the total fresh water resources of the world. Average water supply per capita in Europe is approximately 3 times lower than the average water supply per capita for the whole of the earth.

Uneven distribution of the moisture and heat is a characteristic feature of Europe. Its northern part lies in the zone of excessive moisture and insufficient heat. The southern part has considerable heat resources and insufficient water resources. The amount of precipitation is lower than the evaporation.

The main factor dominating the formation of the water balance of Europe is the moisture transported from the Atlantic (about 70 per cent) and the Arctic (about 30 per cent) Oceans.

The growth of population, the development of industry and agriculture are accompanied by a constant growth of water consumption. The total water consumption volume in Europe has become 8 times greater since the beginning of the century. About half of this volume is industrial water consumption. Water consumption for agriculture has become 5 times greater during the same period.

A considerable portion of water taken from the water sources is lost. Losses are particularly high in agriculture. The main portion of water consumption and water losses falls on the southern part of Europe which lies in the zone of insufficient moisture.

12. Speak about Drought.

UNIT 10

DRAINAGE

1. Repeat these words:

application, by means of, to cause, clay, to consist of, to consider, due to, device, to design, to enter, excess, evaporation, to flow, to feed, to lay, leaching, to lower, nutrients, to permit, proper, purpose, relation, to reduce, shallow, slope, successful

2. Key vocabulary:

to afford – позволять

benefit – польза, выгода

to burn- гореть, сжигать

to discharge – сбрасывать

ditch – канава

frequently – часто

germination – прорастание

gravity –сила тяжести

by gravity – самотеком

improper – неправильный

joint – стык, соединение

to penetrate – проникать

to remove – удалять

to respond – отвечать

room – пространство

swamp – болото

tile drains – гончарные трубы

to waste – терять, понапрасну растачивать

water logging – заболачивание

water table – уровень грунтовых вод

3. Read and translate text A:

Text A

Drainage

Improper irrigation may waste large amounts of water and reduce crop yields. It frequently results in leaching plant nutrients from the soil. Excessive application of water causes high water table, water logging and salinity of soil. This may be corrected by the construction of drainage systems. Very often drainage works are constructed together with irrigation development to discharge both excess of moisture.

Drainage is the removal of excess water from the soil profile. Draining is done both for the purpose of reclaiming swampy areas and lowering the water table and desalinizing soils in arid regions. The development of drainage as a essential complement to irrigation for the successful reclamation of saline and alkali soils has begun only in the present century.

The benefits of drainage consist in improved soil, plant and water relations. Removing the free water from the soil makes room for air and affords better air circulation. Drainage improves soil structure and increases the capillary supply of moisture. Due to lowering the water table the plant roots can penetrate more deeply into the soil, the zone for feeding roots increases. A wet soil is a cold soil because the temperature is lowered by excessive evaporation at the surface. Drained soil is warmer and permits better seed germination. Drained land can be cultivated earlier in spring and it responds better to fertilization.

In general drainage can be divided into two basic types: surface (open) drainage and subsurface (closed) drainage.

Surface drainage systems are designed primarily to remove water that is on the surface and has not entered the soil profile. That is done by developing the slope of the land so that the excess water will flow by gravity to a system of shallow field ditches. In the reclaiming of swamplands the use of large open ditches is the most common method of removing the water.

The removal of water that has already entered the soil profile is considered to be subsurface drainage. This is done by means of tile drains which are normally constructed of burned clay, asbestos or concrete. Tile drains are laid at a specified depth more or less parallel to the soil surface. Free water enters through the tile joints and flows out by gravity.

4. Answer the questions:

1. What can improper irrigation result in?

2. What is the cause of water logging and salinity of soils?

3. What is drainage?

4. For what purposes draining is done?

5. When the development of draining on irrigated lands begin?

6. What are the benefits of drainage?

7. What types of drainage are used?

8. For what purposes is surface drainage used?

9. What is subsurface drainage?

10. In what way is subsurface drainage done?

5. Find English equivalents in the text:

- снизить урожаи

- приводить к вымыванию питательных веществ из почвы

- высокий уровень грунтовых вод

- заболачивание и засоление почвы

- удаление избыточной воды

- с целью осушения болотистых земель

- понижение уровня грунтовых вод

- важное дополнение к орошению

- улучшение взаимоотношений между почвой, растениями и водой

- снабжение влагой по капиллярам

6. Say if the statements are right or wrong according to the text:

1. Proper irrigation may waste large amount of water and reduce crop yields.

2. Drainage works are constructed with irrigation development.

3. The benefits of drainage consist in leaching plant nutrients from soil.

4. Due to lowering the water table the plant roots can correct by construction of drainage system.

5. Drainage can be divided into two basic types: surface drainage and subsurface drainage.

6. Drained soil is warmer and permits better seed germination.

7. Fill in the gaps with words in the list then use the phrases to make sentences:

alkali, excess, common, proper, reduce, drainage, swampy, soil

1. … water

2. … areas

3. … crop yields

4. … methods

5. … soil

6. … irrigation

7. … system

8. … structure

8. Translate into English:

Районы с избыточной влажностью нуждаются в дренаже. Дренаж используется для освоения болотистых земель, для снижения уровня грунтовых вод для удаления избыточной влаги с обрабатываемых земель.

Дренаж создает благоприятные условия для роста растений. Он улучшает структуру почвы и согревает ее. Благодаря дренажу, корни растений проникают глубоко в почву и растения получают больше пищи. Все это ведет к увеличению урожаев. Дренаж может быть поверхностный (открытый) и закрытый.

Grammar