Section 8 (revision of sections 1-7)

I. Give the nouns corresponding to the following verbs:

divide, develop, constitute, alter, depend, relate, shape, appear, compose, solidify, revolve, compare, penetrate, deposit, level, evaporate, increase, influence, widen, envelop, lengthen

II. State to what part of speech the following words belong. Analyse the structure of the words and translate the words into Russian:

solidification, thickness, uppermost, seaward, subsurface, pre-glacial, rarely, rainless, occurrence, recrystallization, independence, unusually, inconsiderably, irregularity, decomposed, usefully, disappearance, unmistakably, muddy

III. Give the other words of the same root:

origin, long, act, vapour, compare, vary, dissolve, lay (down), deep, melt, relate, consider, solid, direct, crystal, inhabit, differ

IV. Give the following words an opposite meaning:

uncommon; useless; incomplete; non-existing; post-glacial; dissimilar; regularly; powerful; indefinitely; composed; valuable; underlying; organic; outside; cloudy

V. Give the three forms of the following verbs:

build up, bring, deal (with), fall, find, lay down, lie, make, mean, rise, wear away

VI. Use the proper form of the word (a) or the proper word (b):

a) 1. Every geologic (phenomenon, phenomena) is inseparably linked with other earth features and processes. 2. Vulcanism includes all (phenomenon, phenomena) that are connected with molten rock matter and its movements. 3. These geological (datum, data) are of importance to geochemistry too. 4. Because the internal structure is the most diagnostic character of a mineral, X-ray (analysis, analyses) is one of the most fundamental methods of mineral identification. 5. The (radius, radii) of the four inner planets of the solar system are much smaller than those of the outer ones (except Pluto). 6. Actually there is an (axis, axes) for every bed, and every fold has countless (axis, axes). 7. By far the most abundant (stratum, strata) in the geologic column are marine, so that determining the conditions of the origin of these rocks is a most important problem in stratigraphy.

b) 1. Wherever molten rock (rises, raises) to the surface, volcanoes may be built up. 2. The sun, the moon and the earth (lie, lay) in nearly the same plane. 3. Sometimes the earthquakes (rise, raise) big tracts of the earth's surface gradually upwards. 4. Rain (lies, lays) the dust transported by the wind. 5. Me-tamorphism (means, mean) a change of form. 6. By various (means, mean) the rocks are weathered into small fragments. 7. Strong wind is an effective (means, mean) of erosion. 8. Most minerals can be quickly identified by (means, mean) of the petrographic microscope. 9. The (means, mean) temperature of the earth is such that liquid water can exist on the surface.

VII. Supply the proper noun or noun-group instead of the words in bold type. Translate the sentences into Russian:

1. The atmosphere is an important geologic agent. It reacts chemically with the rocks and oxidizes them, forming new compounds; it commonly breaks them up into smaller bodies and causes them to disintegrate. 2. It is obvious that every geological formation must be newer than the one underlying it and older than the one overlying it if no disturbance has taken place. 3. Topography shaped by glaciers differs sharply from that shaped by running water. 4. The water carries with it particles of rock, and these finally are dropped in lakes, along rivers and in the ocean, where they form beds of sand and mud. 5. Naturally, hard minerals will offer more resistance (сопротивление) to mechanical weathering agencies than some of the soft ones. 6. Specific gravity is the weight of a unit volume of a mineral compared with that of an equal volume of water. 7. Basic lavas move faster and farther than acidic ones because the former are less viscous. 8. The conditions of life upon the land are in several ways different from those in the water. 9. Aqueous (водный) deposits may properly be called sediments. They are generally grouped into two main divisions: marine sediments and continental sediments. The former were deposited in the sea and the latter in fresh water.

VIII. Translate into Russian paying attention to it:

1. When water changes to solid ice, it expands 9 per cent. 2. These areas give evidence that in the geologically recent past it was far cooler on much of the earth than it is now. 3. The mechanical action of rain consists mainly in the washing of loose particles of soil and rock to lower levels; it is the means by which rivers receive much of the sediment that they carry in suspension. 4. Air can be compressed very easily. It follows from this that the pressure in the lo-west layers of the atmosphere (at sea level) is much greater than the pressure in the upper layers. 5. The earth rotates on its axis from west to east. It is this which causes day and night. 6. It is necessary to consider other mechanical processes which assist in the complete weathering of a rock surface. 7. It is evident that glaciers differ greatly from rivers in the mechanism of their flow and in their erosional and depositional features. 8. It is the crystalline nature of rocks that largely determines their classification. 9. It is found that with the exception of the top few tens of meters of the earth's crust which are subject to seasonal changes, the temperature within the earth steadily rises with increasing depth. 10. It was only in 1919 that a real start was made in taking photographs from the air. 11. What happens to the surficial rock layers heated by sunshine when it gets cold at night?

IX. Translate the following sentences into Russian:

1. Quartz is hardest of the common minerals and diamond is the hardest of all. In elementary and practical work one seldom meets minerals harder than quartz. 2. It is possible to find hardened lavas with chemical compositions essentially identical with those of certain deep-seated rocks. 3. Quartz scratches glass, and cannot be scratched with a knife point. 4. At present, along the seacoasts there exist vast quantities of small life "plankton", both animal and vegetable, which leaves no fossil evidence. 5. As a rule the richer the fossil life, the richer is the oil production. 6. Strata of different sediments are deposited (laid down) on the floor (bottom) of the sea or lake. 7. It is the process of deposition that produces sedimentary rocks. 8. The whole series of sediments may be raised to form dry land. 9. Molten rock is poured out to form extrusive rocks. 10. It must be noted that most underground waters are meteoric in origin. 11. Great pressure causes the molten rock to rise up and pour out as lava. 12. What causes tides? 13. Blue mud generally contains as much as 30% of calcium carbonate. 14. These sediments were originally deposited in nearly hori­zontal layers. 15. The Earth is the densest of the planets, having a specific gra-vity of 5.5, whereas that of Mercury, Venus and Mars is slightly less and that of the major planets much less. 16. We may confidently expect that the ocean will be far more important to mankind in the future than it has ever been in the past. 17. Geologic processes shape the lands. The normal type of physiographic feature, the type which covers by far the greatest part of the continents, is the plain. 18. The fauna of the British Isles is, in general, similar to that of north-western Europe, though there are fewer species. 19. In the presence of carbon dioxide, calcium carbonate is converted into calcium bicarbonate, which is nearly twenty-five times as soluble as the ordinary carbonate. 20. Most springs are cold, but some are hot. The heat of hot springs has two general causes, one is volcanic, the other chemical. 21. The lower the specific (удельная) heat of the atmosphere, the faster it can be warmed and cooled. 22. As compared with marine deposits rocks of continental type are of more relative importance in the formations of Mesozoic age than in those of Paleozoic age. 23. The older the formations the harder they are generally to study. 24. The earth's surface area is as much smaller than the sun's as tiny Switzerland is smaller than the earth's entire extent of land and sea. 25. The periods of great disturbance on the face of the sun do not come so frequently as do summers and winters on earth. 26. The outermost shell, the lithosphere, consists of silicates. 27. The longer the rock particles are transported by water, the finer and the more rounded they become. 28. Natural gas is probably formed in nature along with oil, and the action of such gas on the oil breaks its adhesion to the sand grains and causes the oil to rise vertically through the stratum to the top of the bed. 29. Gas pressure causes wells to spout oil and salt water. 30. The larger the sand grain, the less the friction and the more rapid the withdrawal of the oil. 31. The lighter the oil, the better it is generally considered. 32. In many limestones it is easy to see the remains of small shells without using the microscope. 33. The cooling of air forces some of the vapour to condense to liquid water, or, if the air temperature at the saturation point is below freezing, to snow or frost. 34. It is by the process of undercutting, that the sea cuts its way horizontally into the land. 35. If you examine the layers closely, you will find that they are built up of fragments of varying sizes. 36. The nucleus of hydrogen consists of one proton. The nuclei of other atoms contain both protons and electrons. 37. The more stable (is) the mineral in a chemical sense the greater will be its resistance to chemical change. 38. Now one can study these ancient creatures only through their fossils. 39. All animals and plants are rock-forming organisms. On land plants are the chief rock-forming organisms. 40. The velocity of a stream depends upon its gradient. The greater (is) the fall per mile the faster the water runs; the velocity increases as the square root of the gradient. 41. In tropical lands there is little difference between the temperature of summer and winter at sea level. 42. Color of beds is a general index of organic material. The richer is the organic material, the darker is the color. 43. Formerly the earth was much warmer than it is now and was covered with a dense growth of trees and ferns. 44. A knowledge of the composition and state of the earth's interior is obviously a problem that one cannot solve by direct observation. 45. Studying earth-sun relationships one must learn to think in terms of three dimensions. 46. As one travels northward (in the Northern Hemisphere) one can expect that the mean ground temperature will de­crease. 47. The quality of ground water is of great importance whether the water is to be used for industrial or for domestic purposes. 48. In practice, the geologist has to differentiate among gravels, sands and clays, at least in general terms.

X. Translate the following set-phrases occurring in the Texts 1 — 7:

in addition to; with the exception of (except); in some way (manner); in no way; by no means; by means of; to some extent; to come into being = to come into existence; to give rise to; in turn; as compared to; at sight; to be of interest (importance, value); in time; as a result; under certain conditions; by far; in fact; to play role (part) in

XI. See "Summary of the words equivalent in meaning and opposite in meaning" in Section 14, Exercises XI, XII (words from Sections 1 — 7 are marked with*).

XII. Translate the following word combinations into Russian:

partly weathered rock fragments; precise age determinations; resulting sediment deposition; effective weathering agencies; surface water layers; considerable indirect geologic influence; deeply buried marine strata; plant and animal fossil remains preserved in the underlying rock bed; mantle rock underlain by solid bed rock; raised far above sea level; a rock composed entirely of crystals; fragmental (fragmentary) materials resulting from the breaking up of pre-existing rocks; the total gravitative effect of the sun and moon on the earth; far higher velocities, a relatively low mean summer temperature; more rapidly eroded loose rock strata; specific gravity determinations; naturally occurring substances having definite chemical and physical properties; a thinly inhabited region; profoundly altered original qualities; abundant precipitation; to shape the earth's surface features; closely related phenomena; a considerable number of compounds represented by various combinations of chemical elements; gradually decreasing (increasing) rock densities; the effects caused by high-temperature solutions; consisting of thick solidified lava flows; to give rise to great thickness of marine sediments; water-transported rock particles; water-laid mineral deposits; readily evaporating gaseous constituents; innumerable fossils contained in the lower beds of this rock series; to result in rapid cooling and hardening; originating deep beneath the earth's surface; abundant evidence of deep-seated origin; solids remaining in solution; to vary in thickness from a fraction of a millimeter to many feet; to determine the amount of rain water penetrating the earth; the latter rock type differing from the former in appea-rance and composition; the most common minerals identified in the earth's crust; nearly equal speeds; relatively slightly modified shapes; consolidated from molten condition; to affect the outermost gaseous envelope; to consider different rock series separately; to examine fine-grained rocks more closely; the term comprising various forces wearing away the earth's surface; a branch of geologic science dealing with such phenomena; to average 600 — 900 meters in elevation; to be concerned with the major problems; to be as high as several kilometers; to obtain data related to past geologic events recorded in rocks; principal laws governing the revolution of heavenly bodies around the sun; to cause some land areas to rise; to dissolve chief rock components

*XIII. Give the names of the following:

1. a gaseous layer which envelope the earth; 2. the chief constituents of the atmosphere; 3. the three outer shells of the earth; 4. the three major divisions of the earth; 5. two types of the earth's crust; 6. naturally occurring substances having definite chemical and physical properties; 7. any mass or aggregate of one or more kinds of mineral or organic matter, which owes its origin to the operation of natural causes; 8. three great classes of rocks; 9. rocks formed by the solidification of molten rock; 10. igneous rocks formed by the solidification of molten matter within the earth's crust; 11. igneous rocks resulting from the consolidation of molten rock at or on the surface of the ground (2 names); 12. rocks formed by the consolidation of sediments; 13. rocks composed of the fragmental materials resulting from the breaking up of other rocks (2 names); 14. rocks derived from pre-existing rocks by mineralogical, chemical and structural alterations due to intense heat and pressure; 15. a thin cover on the earth's surface of loose materials consisting of sand, clay and other rock particles mixed with organic matter resulting from the decay of vegetation; 16. loose rock represented by soil and subsoil together; 17. massive consolidated rock underlying the mantle rock; 18. the remains and traces of ancient animals and plants contained (found) in rocks

XIV. Get ready to discuss the following:

1. Geology as a science. Branches of geologic science. 2. Historical geo-logy, its tasks and the methods used. 3. The earth as a heavenly body. Its place in the solar system, its shape, the two kinds of its motion. 4. The influence of the sun and moon upon the earth. 5. The moon as the earth's satellite; its general characteristics. 6. The three great outer parts of the earth: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the lithosphere; their general characteristics. 7. The atmosphere, its structure, composition and geological function. 8. The hydrosphere. Water as one of the greatest of all geological agencies. 9. The earth's crust, its mode of formation and general characteristics. 10. The three great classes of rocks. Their chief characteristics. 11. Igneous and sedimentary rocks, their formation and distribution. 12. Metamorphic rocks, their formation. 13. The two types of the earth's crust: the continental and oceanic one. 14. Minerals, definition, identification. 15. The essential difference between minerals and rocks. 16. The three major divisions of the earth based on seismologic evidence. 17. Rocks and soils.