Lexical Exercises

XIV. Translate the following sentences into Russian. Memorize constructions equivalent in meaning. Use them in sentences of your own:

consists of

is composed of

1. The lithosphere is built up of solid rocky material.

is made up of

is formed of

the solid earth.

constitutes

2. The lithosphere, or makes up

rock sphere builds up

composes

comprises all the waters on and

3. The hydrosphere includes near the earth’s

contains surface.

XV. Put all possible questions to the following sentences:

1. The continental crust consists of light rocks. 2. The oceanic crust is made up of dark rocks. 3. The hydrosphere comprises all the waters on and near the earth's surface.

XVI. Give Russian equivalents of the following:

solid rocky material; the chief constituents of the air; the partial envelope; for countless ages; to effect important changes; to cause modifications; the transportation and deposition of the resulting sediment; to penetrate the outer portion of the crust; the records; to wear down the higher portions; to some extent; in turn

XVII. Give English equivalents of the following:

состоять из; составлять большую часть земли; содержать, включать (3 слова); гидросфера; атмосфера; литосфера; газовая оболочка; выпадение осадков; водяной пар; углекислый газ; переносить и откладывать осадки; растворять; растворение; раствор; грунтовая (подземная) вода; засуш­ливый район; окутывать (окружать); кислород; азот; двуокись

XVIII. Use the words from the text instead of the words in bold type:

1. The partial blanket containing all the waters on and near the earth's surface is called the hydrosphere. 2. The lithosphere which is composed of solid rocky material, makes up by far the greater portion of the earth. 3. Movements of the atmosphere produce important modifications of the lands. 4. To some extent air makes its way into the outer portion of the earth's crust through holes in the rocks. 5. The great function of water is the weathering of the higher parts of the lithosphere, and the carrying away and laying down of the resul-ting sediment in the different lower portions of the lithosphere. 6. The chief component parts of the air are nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, and carbon dioxide.

XIX. Translate the text without using a dictionary. Write ten topical questions. Retell the text using your questions as a plan:

THE ATMOSPHERE

1. The atmosphere is the blanket (envelope) of air that covers the rocks and the waters of the earth. Its mass is less than a millionth part of that of the earth, but its activities and influences are far-reaching¹. Its presence is necessary to sustain² the varied life of the earth, and it acts as a blanket to equalize the temperatures of the earth's surface. It serves as a medium³ for the transfer⁴ of water that is evaporated from the lands and seas and that is precipitated as rain upon the earth wearing away the rocks and transporting them to the seas. It is one of the agents of weathering, and it transports and deposits weathered material.

2. The atmosphere is a mixture of gases which envelops the whole earth. It is composed of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%). The remainder is made up of five rare gases. Water vapor, which is water in gaseous form, is always pre-sent in the lower atmosphere. It occupies space⁵ independently of the other gases and comprises up to 3% of the weight of any given volume of air. We do not know exactly⁶ how high the atmosphere extends⁷. Scientists know that there is some air at a height as great as 200 miles. In fact all of the air, however, lies below the altitude (height) of 25 miles, and most of it is within only a few miles of the earth. The higher we rise, the rarer⁸ (thinner) the atmosphere becomes. The lowest layer of the atmosphere, rising to a height of about 8 miles, is called the troposphere. Beyond this are the stratosphere and the ionosphere [aɪ'ɔnəsfɪə].

Notes

¹ far-reaching — имеющий большие последствия

² to sustain [səsˊteɪn] — поддерживать

³ medium [ˊmi:djəm] — среда

⁴ transfer [ˊtrænsfə:] — перемещение, перенос

⁵ space — пространство

⁶ exactly = precisely

⁷ to extend [ɪksˊtend] — простираться

⁸ rare [rεə] — редкий, разреженный

XX. Read the text rapidly (8 minutes) and carefully and do the Comprehension Check (Exercise XXIII). Render the content in detail (in English or Russian):

THE MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE EARTH

The topmost (uppermost) layers of the earth are called the crust. Its thickness and composition are not constant, but vary between the continental crust and the oceanic crust. The former is much thicker than the latter and consists of light rocks; the latter is made up of dark rocks. The upper part of the crust is a thin and discontinuous layer of sedimentary rocks and oceanic deposits. That part of the earth between the crust and a depth of approximately (about) 2900 km is called the mantle, and for the remaining part - inside the mantle - the word core ^l is used. These three major (main) divisions of the earth into the crust, the mantle, and the core (see Fig. 2) are based on seismic [ˊsaɪzmɪk] evidence.

Some authors use different terms to denote various subdivisions within the earth. For example, the terms "lithosphere" and "asthenosphere" [æsˊθɪnəsfɪə] have been used to indicate outer and inner shells of large and relatively small strength (твердость, жесткость), respectively. Again, the terms "sial" and "sima" were introduced before the advent (coming) of seismic information about the crust to differ, on chemical grounds, the light rocks of the continents from the dark rocks of the ocean basins. In both cases, silica (SiO₂) is the leading constituent, but in the first group the next most abundant² constituent is alumina [əˊlju:mɪnə], while in the second it is magnesia [mægˊni:ʃə]. The early geologists recognized that the sima extended beneath the continental blocks. However, they had no means of distinguishing between³ the basaltic [bəˊsɔ:ltɪk] oceanic crust and the mantle, which is formed of denser materials. With increasingly precise knowledge, many of the older concepts and terms are becoming obsolete⁴.

Notes

¹ core [kɔ:] — ядро

² abundant [əˊbʌndənt] — распространенный, изобильный

³ to distinguish (between) = to differ

⁴ obsolete [ˊɔbsəli:t] — вышедший из употребления, устаревший

Fig. 2. The Earth Structure

M – the crust mantle boundary – поверхность Мохоровичича.

XXI. Translate into English:

1. В настоящее время известно, что Земля состоит из нескольких оболочек (shell), или геосфер, имеющих различный физико-химический характер. 2. Литосфера — каменная оболочка, представляющая твердую наружную оболочку Земли. Литосфера построена из твердых пород. 3. Осадочные горные породы слагают (составляют) обычно самую верхнюю часть земной коры. 4. Осадочные породы, откладываемые на суше или под водой, содержат обычно различные окаменелости (fossil) — окаменевшие остатки животных и растений. 5. Магматические породы ни-когда не содержат окаменелостей. Это указывает на то, что эти породы не могли образоваться из осадков ни на дне моря, ни на поверхности суши. 6. Одни породы растворяются водой гораздо легче, чем другие. Вода, содержащая углекислоту, способна разрушать даже сложные (complex) минералы, составляющие магматические породы. 7. Хотя есть сотни минералов, известных людям, только несколько из них являются распространенными (common). Земная кора состоит в основном из семи минералов. 8. Никакие осадки не остаются постоянными. Физические, химические и биохимические процессы вызывают (производят) в них важные изменения. 9. Есть много разнообразных агентов, которые уже на протяжении бесчисленных веков выветривают горные породы, снижают поверхность и постепенно выравнивают (to level) горный рельеф (relief). 10. Огромная растворяющая работа воды, содержащей углекислоту, может привести к значительному изменению рельефа. 11. Самые обычные (распространенные) обломочные (clastic) осадочные породы образуются процессами выветривания, переноса и отложения.

XXII. Analyse the sentences in the following way:

1. Определите тип предложения (простое, сложное). 2. Найдите в предложениях сказуемое и определите форму глагола. 3. Найдите подлежащее и дополнение и их определения (левые, правые). 4. Определите значение и функцию слов на -ed и -ing.

a) Winds of different velocities at different times blow sand grains of differing sizes over the dunes, so that the sands deposited on the back slope show sorting into thin layers of coarse and fine sand.

b) The settling of fine particles into the interstices between the coarser grains already stranded on the bottom smooths the surface and compacts the sediments.

^* XXIII. Comprehension Check:

On a separate piece of paper, write the numbers 1 through 10 on both sides. Mark one side "Test I", and the other side "Test 2". Read each statement and decide whether it is true or false. Write "T" after true statements and "F" after false statements under Test 1. After you have finished the comprehension check, turn Test 1 face down. Then read the article again (6 minutes) and do the comprehension check again under Test 2. (Base your answers on the information in the article "The Major Divisions of the Earth" only, even if you disagree with what the author said). Compare your answers in Test 1 with those in Test 2. Support your answers by referring to appropriate paragraphs or sentences in the article. The second reading time is reduced by several minutes.

1. The article deals with the major divisions and subdivisions of the earth and the terms used to denote them. 2. The earth's crust represented by the topmost layers of the earth is constant in thickness and composition. 3. The continental crust consisting of light rocks is thinner than the oceanic crust made up of dark rocks. 4. The upper part of the crust is a thick and continuous layer of sedimentary rocks and oceanic deposits. 5. The word "mantle" is used for the part of the earth between the crust and the core. 6. Various subdivisions within the earth are denoted by different terms on various grounds. 7. The term "asthenosphere" is used to denote the outer shell of large strength. 8. The terms "sial" and "sima" were introduced to differ on chemical grounds the light rocks of the continents from the dark rocks of the ocean basins. 9. The leading constituent in sial is different from that in sima. 10. The early geologists had no means of distinguishing between the basaltic oceanic crust and the mantle composed of denser materials.