§351. The combinability of at in the last example re­sembles, to some extent, that of an adverb. Cf. To be laughed away (off).

On the basis of sentences like

They bought chairs to sit о п.

I have no pen to write with.

Children like to read and to be read t o.

The book was not looked for.

and the fact that many prepositions are homonymous with adverbs A. 1. Smirnitsky thinks it possible to regard prepo­sitions not as a separate part of speech, but as a group of adverbs.

We are definitely against that view.

1. The number of instances when prepositions lose their right-hand connections is comparatively small. According to V. I. Artyukhova it occurs in 65 instances out of 4,575 in The White Monkey by J. Galsworthy. That means that in an overwhelming majority of cases (98,6 per cent) the combinability of prepositions differs from that of adverbs.

2. Many prepositions such as to, at, for, from, among, with, of, into, out of, in front of, etc. are not homonymous with adverbs.

3. Those prepositions that are homonymous with adverbs (down, along, before) are related with the latter by conversion (see § 57). These relations, as we know, are typical of English and connect words of different parts of speech. (Cf. home n. —home adv.; since adv. — since conj. — since prep.).

§ 352. Though the lexico-grammatical meaning, the com­binability and function of English prepositions are similar to those of the Russian counterparts, the role of prepositions in the two languages is different. This difference, however, depends not on the prepositions, but on the nouns they intro­duce.

The lexico-grammatical meaning of prepositions, 'rela­tions (of substances)', approximates to the grammatical meaning of case (see § 81).

In the Russian language with its six-case system the rela­tions of substances are mostly denoted by case morphemes. Prepositions are but a secondary means of specifying these relations. In English the only positive case morpheme -'s shows but a very limited number of relations. So prepositions become a primary means of denoting relations of substances. Their role, as we see, is determined by the grammatical system of the language.

In Russian the two means of expressing relations of sub­stances are interdependent. Certain prepositions go with certain cases (к дому, от дома, над домом, etc.). So the pre­position is closely connected with the noun it precedes. It cannot be used without the noun. In English the preposi­tion is much more independent. It can be separated from the noun, as in The house I speak of. Several prepositions may refer to one noun in the sentence, as in He ... played with and read to the children. (Jerome). A preposition may refer not only to a word, but also to a word-combination (That is for you to decide.) or a clause (It all depends on how he will act.).

THE CONJUNCTION

§ 353. The conjunction is a part of speech characterized by the following features.

1. Its lexico-grammatical meaning of 'relations between substances, actions, properties, situations, etc.'.

2. Its peculiar combinability. As a rule, a conjunction connects two similar units: words of a similar type or clauses.

3. Its function of a linking word.

§ 354. Conjunctions are not characterized by any grammat­ical categories or typical stem-building elements. As to their stem-structure conjunctions are, as usual, divided into simple (and, but, or, that, till, if, etc.), derivative (until, unless, because, provided, etc.), compound (although, whereas, etc.) and composite (as if, in order that, as soon as, either ... or, neither ... nor, etc.).

A variety of composite conjunctions is the group of the so-called correlative conjunctions which go in pairs: both... and, either ... or, no sooner ... than, etc.

§ 355. Many conjunctions are homonymous with adverbs and prepositions (after, since, before), pronouns (that, so, neither), participles (supposing, provided).

§ 356. The lexico-grammatical meaning of conjunctions is an abstraction from their lexical meanings. The latter are also very general, abstract and rather weak. Therefore conjunctions can be treated as semi-notional words (see § 50), though not as form-words since they are not devoid of content.

§ 357. As regards the nature of the relations they serve to express conjunctions are usually divided into two subclasses: coordinating (and, or, both ... and, etc.) and subordinating (if, that, as soon as, etc.) conjunctions.

The former 'connect syntactical units which are equal in rank, discharge the same functions. The latter are used to show the dependence of one unit on another.

Cf. This is crystal clear and the government admits it. (Daily Worker).

I f they did so, their complete fare would be refunded. (Daily Worker).

§ 358. The combinability of coordinating conjunctions is bilateral like that of prepositions. But there are essential differences.

1. The right-hand combinability of prepositions is stable, that of conjunctions is variable.

2. With prepositions there is no correlation between the right-hand and the left-hand connections. With conjunctions it is different. A conjunction usually connects a noun with a noun (or pro-noun), a verb with a verb, a clause with a clause. In this sense a conjunction connects homogeneous elements, while a preposition mostly connects heterogeneous elements.

3. A preposition cannot introduce a clause without a con­nective word, as a conjunction does. Cf. It depends on when (where, how, why) he does it, not * It depends on he does it.