- •1) Грамматический строй языка. Особенности структуры английского языка.
- •2) Грамматическая категория. Основное / транспонированное значение.
- •3) Грамматическое значение. Грамматические формы и способы из образования.
- •Morphemes From the point of view what they mark
- •From the point of view of how they mark and what they consist in
- •4) Ранние работы
- •5) Нормативная грамматика
- •6) Научные грамматики
- •7) Новые грамматические школы
- •3) Generative semantics (важно значение отношений, а не форма)
- •8) Text linguistics (text grammar)
- •9) Parts of speech
- •10) The noun (general)
- •11) Категория числа существительного
- •12) Категория падежа существительного
- •13) Категория определенности / неопределенности существительного
- •14) Род существительного
- •15) Имя прилагательное
- •16) Наречие
- •17) Числительное
- •18) Местоимение
- •19) Глагол. Общая характеристика.
- •Classification of Verbs
- •20) Глагол. Личные и неличные формы
- •21) Категория вида. Способы передачи отдельных видовых значений в английском языке (повторность, начинательность).
- •22) Категория временной соотнесенности. Проблематика. Значения перфектных форм в связи с лексическим характером глагола. Предельные / непредельные глаголы (terminative / non-terminative)
- •23) Категория залога. Проблема залога.
- •24) Категория наклонения. Проблема сослагательного наклонения в английском языке.
- •25) Категории лица и числа. Проблема согласования сказуемого с подлежащим.
- •26) Категория времени. Проблема выделения временных оппозиций. Правила согласования времен.
- •Sequence of tenses in complex sentences
- •Sequence of tenses in sentences with object clauses Present or future in the main clause
- •Past tense in the main clause
- •The choice of a past tense in the object subordinate clause
- •27) Form words
- •28) Предложение. Основные признаки. Аспекты предложения.
- •29) Классификация предложения по разным признакам
- •30) Коммуникативное (актуальное) членение предложения. Способы выделения смыслового центра.
- •31) Порядок слов. Его роль и функции. Инверсия и перемещение.
- •32) Сложные предложения. Их типы. Способы связи их частей. Особенности английского сложного предложения.
- •33) Модальность. Основные группы модальных значений. Средства выражения модальности.
- •34) Словосочетание. Основные признаки. Типы. Виды (средства) связей.
- •35) Предикативные словосочетания (синтаксические комплексы)
- •36) Коммуникативные типы высказывания.
- •37) Типы грамматик
9) Parts of speech
A part of speech is a class of words which is characterized by certain typical features which are characteristic of all the elements which constitute this class. (or words or lexical units)
The problem of PoS is quite a problem and it has been a problem for centuries. The number of parts of speech which specialists distinguish varies from 4 to 13-14 or even 15.
The history of the PoS goes back to the ancient times even BC. Aristotle and even earlier Indian grammarians were greatly interested in the classification of words. Aristotle had 4 classes of words (his classification is more concerned with rhetories than with grammar). In E gramm the theory of PoS proper begins in the period of prenormative and normative grammars (the 16th c onwards).
3 main approaches: 1) morphological (takes into account three main criteria which describe a certain word both as a lexical unit and as a unit of a higher level that is meaning, form, function (in the sentence). 2) structural which is based distribution and formal markers 3) onomasilogical (general semantic meaning).
Fries’s classification: in his book “the structure of English” ha gave a classification of PoS which entirely depends on the distribution of the word. To study the dist of the word he introduced the term “frames”. Af – is a formula of a typical construction which is typical of this particular word as belonging to a certain class. He proved the liability of his theory by the operation of substitution. Through this operation he gets 4 classes, he calls them by numbers:
Class one (nouns)
Class two (verbs)
Class three (adjectives)
Class four (adverbs) + 15 functional classes: 15 groups of function words = (in our terminology) indeclinable
Vinogradov: parts of speech are only those that can be members of the sentence. There are three main groups of words: 1) parts of speech 2) particles of speech (particles proper, linking elements, prepositions and conjunctions) 3) special structural semantic groups (modal verbs, interjections)
Since E is an analytical language and since to identify a word it’s not enough to know its meaning and form it seems advisable to apply to the E L the criteria which are the most formal.
the most formal one is the distribution of the word
the second - the form, the grammatical patterning of the word
the third criteria – the word building patterning
the fourth criteria – the general meaning of the class
The Parts of Speech in English:
1) notional parts of speech
2) auxiliaries (form words, function words)
The Noun (categories of number, case and def./indef.)
The Adj (the category of degrees of comparison)
The verb (the tense, the aspect, the voice, the time-correlation, the mood, the person, the number)
The Adverb (the d of comp)
The Pronoun – several opinions, have different meanings and different morphology
The Numeral Form (Function) Words – no morphology, denote the number
The prepositions
The Conjunctions (no morphology)
The Particles
The Interjection
The Modal Verbs (modal expressing meaning, colouring)
The Sentence Words (Yes! No!)
Some disputable problems:
The Adj – s which begin with “a” (afraid…) and “ill” – where to refer them? Sometimes they are included in the group of adj as a special kind of predicative adj – s. Another point of view: they constitute a special PoS which is called the category of state.
Where to refer pronouns? notional or form words. But they’re somehow in between. They are more notional than functional because they are very important text building elements mostly anaphoric but sometimes cataphoric
The Article. In some grammars we find that the A is considered to be a part of speech and + in some modern grammars.