- •1) Грамматический строй языка. Особенности структуры английского языка.
- •2) Грамматическая категория. Основное / транспонированное значение.
- •3) Грамматическое значение. Грамматические формы и способы из образования.
- •Morphemes From the point of view what they mark
- •From the point of view of how they mark and what they consist in
- •4) Ранние работы
- •5) Нормативная грамматика
- •6) Научные грамматики
- •7) Новые грамматические школы
- •3) Generative semantics (важно значение отношений, а не форма)
- •8) Text linguistics (text grammar)
- •9) Parts of speech
- •10) The noun (general)
- •11) Категория числа существительного
- •12) Категория падежа существительного
- •13) Категория определенности / неопределенности существительного
- •14) Род существительного
- •15) Имя прилагательное
- •16) Наречие
- •17) Числительное
- •18) Местоимение
- •19) Глагол. Общая характеристика.
- •Classification of Verbs
- •20) Глагол. Личные и неличные формы
- •21) Категория вида. Способы передачи отдельных видовых значений в английском языке (повторность, начинательность).
- •22) Категория временной соотнесенности. Проблематика. Значения перфектных форм в связи с лексическим характером глагола. Предельные / непредельные глаголы (terminative / non-terminative)
- •23) Категория залога. Проблема залога.
- •24) Категория наклонения. Проблема сослагательного наклонения в английском языке.
- •25) Категории лица и числа. Проблема согласования сказуемого с подлежащим.
- •26) Категория времени. Проблема выделения временных оппозиций. Правила согласования времен.
- •Sequence of tenses in complex sentences
- •Sequence of tenses in sentences with object clauses Present or future in the main clause
- •Past tense in the main clause
- •The choice of a past tense in the object subordinate clause
- •27) Form words
- •28) Предложение. Основные признаки. Аспекты предложения.
- •29) Классификация предложения по разным признакам
- •30) Коммуникативное (актуальное) членение предложения. Способы выделения смыслового центра.
- •31) Порядок слов. Его роль и функции. Инверсия и перемещение.
- •32) Сложные предложения. Их типы. Способы связи их частей. Особенности английского сложного предложения.
- •33) Модальность. Основные группы модальных значений. Средства выражения модальности.
- •34) Словосочетание. Основные признаки. Типы. Виды (средства) связей.
- •35) Предикативные словосочетания (синтаксические комплексы)
- •36) Коммуникативные типы высказывания.
- •37) Типы грамматик
14) Род существительного
The E noun has no grammatical category of gender (there are no markers). However very often we have to express sexual distinction.
when we have diff words: woman – man
when there are no pairs of words:
to add a pronoun
a she-doctor / a he-doctor
man/woman
washer-man – washer-woman (compound words)
animals: pronouns or even proper names
a she-goat – a he-goat
Tom-cat – Pussy-cat
ess – actor – actress
steward – stewardess
Sometimes some objects are usually referred to as “she”: ships, cars, and towns. The problem of personification (elevated prose, fairy-tales) – there’s atendency: something which carries a stronger force and feeling = “he” (sun, love, wind) and something that carries softer forces / feelings is usually referred to as “she” (moon, sweet). When man is a suffix it is not considered (male = female). Chairman, postman = she’s a postman, but sometimes: sportsman = sportswoman.
15) Имя прилагательное
As far as the distribution of the article is concerned, its usual position is preposition in relation to the noun. It also may function in the postposition in relation to the link verb. Functions: attribute before a noun and predicative after a link verb. It has only one grammatical category – the degrees of comparison (the positive, the comparative, superlative) – characteristics of qualitive adjectives. Some other adj denoting material, place may become qualitive (железный характер).
Word building: adj may have word composition (composition of stems), conversion and affixation.
Affixation: can have prefixes and suffixes (y, ful, ish)
Conversion: the adj turns into a noun – substantivazation, lexicolization of a certain grammar marker –s (shorts).
The adjective denotes quality in the wide sense of the word. It may be a stable quality (a fast train) and a quality of the moment.
The usual position is preposition, however there are cases when the adjective follows the noun (It’s the only dictionary available – under logical stress, part of the rheme, is connected with the actual division).
In some cases – part of certain words built according to the French pattern (attorney general – министр юстиции США, the body politic – государство, объединяется на семантическом уровне в 1 понятие).
Sometimes it may mean the following: the stars visible (такими они являются), the visible stars – can be seen at a proper time.
The use of the adjectives together with indefinite pronoun (anything bigger, something larger) is a reduced clause (something which is larger).
An adverbial modifier of measure and degree: positive degree – very, so, a most; comparative – much, far, a great deal ,considerably, even, still; superlative – the best…possible available. Употребление превосходной степени без артикля – просто усиление качества.
It is twice larger than it´s wide – в 2 раза больше в длину чем в ширину.
Some problems connected with the adjective:
1) how to treat the analytic forms of comparison. Some linguists consider them to be word groups, consisting of words. Another position – the grammatical form of word
2) category of state – the problem of its existence (Russian – холодно, тепло, непонятно). In English there are some adj which can be used only and exclusively as a predicative, most of them have the prefix a (afraid, asleep, ill).
There is an opinion that they may form a special class – words of the category of state.
3) the problem of stonewall: what is the first element? It is a noun that is served as a compound word or it’s an adjective formed by conversion – a word group (Moscow Theatre)
4) the problem connected with meaning expressing quality of the subject or an object. We have to choose between the adverb (ly) and the word of the same root without ly. In the latter case it is usually referred to as the object complement or the subject complement (You don’t play fair – you are not fair. He pulled the rope tight – the rope got tight). Adverb with ly – the adverbial modifier of manner or an adverbial of measure and degree (the father loved his daughter dearly), without ly – a group of an adverbial modifier of place (high in the sky).
5) much/many are usually mentioned in connection with the adj, adv, indefinite pronoun.