Vocabulary

1. Do you know the meaning of the following words? Try to match up each of them to its Ukrainian equivalent. Use your dictionary if necessary.

cost (s) to incur corresponding costs to attach to fixed costs to tend to be unaffected output to meet the costs capacity to operate at less than full capacity average fixed cost when setting prices variable costs to consume to assume a bulk discount semi – variable costs marriage direct costs direct labour direct materials indirect costs	indirect materials stores lubricants indirect labour supervision costs marginal costs imputed (implicit) costs monetary value opportunity cost to lay off labour costs production costs advertising costs distribution costs storage costs selling costs administrative costs cost price manufacturing cost operating costs cost analysis cost of sales
витрати виробництва припиняти роботу (підприємства); звільняти (робітників) витрати на робочу силу непрямі матеріали обігові витрати труд підcобних робітників тісний союз витрати на реалізацію мастильні матеріали аналіз витрат	припускати, вважати граничні витрати середні витрати на одиницю продукції продуктивність, випуск продукції терпіти (збитки), нести (збитки) експлуатаційні витрати пов’язувати з чим – небудь торгові витрати при призначенні цін витрати на зберігання жива праця, основна робота
заводська собівартість, виробничі витрати відповідні витрати витрати на рекламу мати тенденцію не змінюватися адміністративні, управлінські витрати постійні витрати працювати при неповному завантаженні потужностей витрати на контроль виробнича ціна, собівартість продукції собівартість, витрати споживати	матеріально – виробничі запаси знижка на великий обсяг замовлення непрямі витрати покривати вартість прямі витрати грошова оцінка вмінені витрати обсяг, здатність; потужність, продуктивність перемінні витрати основні виробничі матеріали напівперемінні витрати витрати в результаті прийнятного альтернативного курсу

Pre-reading task

Work in small groups.

You are going to read about costs. Do you have any idea about fixed and variable costs?

Do you know anything about them?

Preface each answer with one of the following according to what is true for you:

As for this problem… I am afraid that I don’t know…

It may be assumed that… I am not quite sure that…

It is essential for…

Reading

1. Read text 16. How much of the information did your group already know?

Text 16

Costs

Costs are incurred by all the activities a business undertakes. Every decision, no matter how small, involves a corresponding cost. The importance which should be attached to cost in any business enterprise cannot be surprising when it is remembered that:

Profit = Revenue - Costs

Some basic cost definitions are given in this text.

Fixed costs

Fixed costs are those costs which, over a given period of time, tend to be unaffected by changes in output. For example, a factory capable of producing 100000 engineering parts in a certain period of time might have fixed costs in terms of rent, heating, lighting and the cost of machinery of £100 000 in that time. If the factory only produces 80 000 units it will still have to meet the costs associated with 100 000 units.

The total number of goods and services a business is capable of producing is known as its capacity. You should realise that businesses offering services will also have a limit to the total amount they can provide for their customers. A hairdressing salon has a given number of seats, sinks, dryers and stylists. A restaurant is limited in the number of meals it can supply by its kitchen capacity, by seating accommodation, the number of staff, and on the number of meals they can serve. The TV engineer is limited by level of skill and the time spent on the number of repairs possible in one day.

When a business produces less than the amount of which it is capable we say it is operating at less than full capacity. This is usually expressed as a percentage of full capacity:

(Number of units produced x 100) / Capacity of business

In the example given above this would be:

(80000 x 100) / 100000 = 80 per cent

Figure 1 Fixed costs Figure 2 Avarege fixed costs declining as output increases

Costs Costs

3 00 5

200 3

Fixed cost

1 00 1 Average fixed costs

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Output Output

Figure1 shows the position of a business with a capacity of 100 000 at a fixed cost of £100 000 in a given period of time.

Average fixed cost is the proportion of total fixed costs carried by each item produced and is calculated by dividing total fixed cost by output. When the business described above is producing at full capacity then the average fixed cost will be £1. When it is operating at 80 per cent capacity the average fixed cost will be £1.20.

Try the same calculation for different levels of output for the above business. You should find that the lower the level of output the higher the average fixed cost. This fact has a significance for businesses when setting prices and deciding whether or not to accept a particular order. Figure 2 shows average fixed costs decreasing as output increases.