- •Principles of historical hypothesis
- •Diachronic reconstruction
- •Julius on the germanic tribes
- •Cornelius Tacitus on the life and customs of the ancient Germans
- •Traditional classification
- •Historical classification
- •Two stages in the development of Proto-Germanic
- •Early Proto-Germanic
- •Late Proto-Germanic
- •Classification of Proto-Germanic Languages Genetic, typological and areal methods
- •1) Indo-European voiceless plosives [ p, t. K, kʷ] changed into Germanic voiceless fricatives [ f, þ, h, hʷ].
- •2) Indo-European plosives [b, d, g, gʷ] changed into Germanic voiceless plosives [p, t, k, kʷ].
- •3) Ie aspirated voiceless plosives [bh, dh, gh, gʷh] changed into voiced plosives without aspiration [b, d, g, gʷ].
- •Verbs in Old Germanic Language
1) Indo-European voiceless plosives [ p, t. K, kʷ] changed into Germanic voiceless fricatives [ f, þ, h, hʷ].
2) Indo-European plosives [b, d, g, gʷ] changed into Germanic voiceless plosives [p, t, k, kʷ].
3) Ie aspirated voiceless plosives [bh, dh, gh, gʷh] changed into voiced plosives without aspiration [b, d, g, gʷ].
1) глухие взрывные становятся фрикативными (p, t, k, kʷ → f, þ, h, hʷ). Примеры: др.гр. pod – англ. foot, русск. пять – англ. five, фр. trois – англ. three, лат. capio – др.англ. hebban, фр. que – англ. what.
2) взрывные [b, d, g, gʷ] становятся глухими взрывными [p, t, k, kʷ]. Примеры: лат. labor – англ. sleep, фр.dix – англ.ten, лат. gelare – англ. cold, др.греч.gyne – англ.queen.
3) глухие взрывные с аспирацией [bh, dh, gh, gʷh] становятся звонкими взрывными без аспирации [ b, d, g, gʷ→w]. Примеры: фр. frere – англ. brother, др. гр. methu – англ. mead, др.гр.khen - англ.goose, др.гр. thermos – англ.warm
Exceptions:
IE plosives [p, t, k] after Germanic [f, t, sx] underwent no change (all languages of the Germanic group).
When preceded by sound [s], the consonants [p, t, k] were not shifted so IE sound clusters [sp, st, sk] remained in Germanic languages unchanged.
In a cluster of two plosives the preceding consonant turns into fricative while the following one remains aplosive.
Verner's law. Voiceless fricatives *f, *þ, *h, *hʷ, when immediately following an unstressed syllable in the same word, underwent voicing and became respectively the fricatives *v, * ð, *ɣ, *ɣʷ.
Глухие фрикативные согласные *f, *þ, *s, *h, *hʷ озвончаются в случае, если непосредственно предшествующий гласный не имел на себе индоевропейского главного ударения и становятся фрикативными. *v, * ð, *ɣ, *ɣʷ.
The second consonant shift (High German Shift)
It led to the differentiation of the consonant system of German from other Germanic languages. 3-5 cent. AD.
When sound between vowels p, t, k were shifted to the corresponding double aspirate ff, zz, hh
When sound initially after a consonant or it doubled p, t, k are shifted to voiceless affricates pf, tz, kch (apple-Apfel)
Voiced consonants b, d, g were shifted to the corresponding p, t, k. (Tag-day-positional changes)
The third consonant shift (Danish consonant shift)
It began in XXII cent. and it considered to be not finished yet. According to the III CS, sounds [p, t, k] in position after vowels were changed into voiced plosives [b, d, g] and further changed to fricatives [v, ð, j].
Types of mutation
Mutation is the regressive assimilation of vowels by vowels of the following syllables. The term „umlaut“ belongs to Jacob Grimm. Vowel mutation is attested at all Germanic languages except Gothic. There are 2 types of mutation: palatal or i-umlaut and velar or u-umlaut.
Palatal (i-umlaut) - back vowels become fronted by an i(:) or j after a following consonant. As a result, back vowels a, o, u under the influence of the following i (:) which could be dropped or turned to e were mutated: a→e, u→ii. (частичное изменение гласного корня под влиянием гласного последующего слога).
U-umlaut was occurred in Faroese and Icelandic, where a changed to ø/o in Faroese and ö in Icelandic when preceded by u.