II. Материалы для самостоятельной работы

Unit 1. OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH

ERGONOMICS

Ergonomics is the scientific discipline concerned with designing according to the human needs, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance. The field is also called human engineering, and human factors engineering.

Ergonomic research is primarily performed by ergonomists, who study human capabilities in relationship to their work demands. Information derived from ergonomists contributes to the design and evaluation of tasks, jobs, products, environments and systems in order to make them compatible with the needs, abilities and limitations of people.

Ergonomics is a science concerned with the ‘fit’ between people and their work. It takes account of the worker's capabilities and limitations in seeking to ensure that tasks, equipment, information and the environment suit each worker.

To assess the fit between a person and their work, ergonomists consider:

• the job being done and the demands on the worker;

• the equipment used (its size, shape, and how appropriate it is for the task);

• the information used (how it is presented, accessed, and changed).

Ergonomics draws on many disciplines in its study of humans and their environments, including anthropometry, biomechanics, mechanical engineering, industrial engineering, industrial design, kinesiology, physiology and psychology.

Typically, an ergonomist will have a BA or BS in Psychology, Industrial/Mechanical Engineering or Health Sciences, and usually an MA, MS or PhD in a related discipline. Many universities offer Master of Science degrees in Ergonomics, while some offer Master of Ergonomics or Master of Human Factors degrees.

More recently, occupational therapists have been moving into the field of ergonomics and the field has been heralded as one of the top ten emerging practice areas to watch for in the new millennium.

There are five aspects of ergonomics, safety, comfort, ease of use, productivity/performance, and aesthetics. Based on these aspects of ergonomics, examples are given of how products or systems could benefit from redesign based on ergonomic principles.

• Safety - Medicine bottles: The print on them could be larger so that a sick person who may have impaired vision (due to sinuses, etc.) can more easily see the dosages and label. Ergonomics could design the print style, color and size for optimal viewing.

• Comfort - Alarm clock display: Some displays are harshly bright, drawing one’s eye to the light when surroundings are dark. Ergonomic principles could redesign this based on contrast principles.

• Ease of use - Street Signs: In a strange area, many times it is difficult to spot street signs. This could be addressed with the principles of visual detection in ergonomics.

• Productivity/performance - HD TV: The sound on HD TV is much lower than regular TV. So when you switch from HD to regular, the volume increases dramatically. Ergonomics recognizes that this difference in decibel level creates a difference in loudness and hurts human ears and this could be solved by evening out the decibel levels. Voicemail instructions: It takes too long to have to listen to all of the obvious instructions. Ergonomics could address this by providing more options to the user, enabling them to easily and quickly skip the instructions.

• Aesthetics - Signs in the workplace: Signage should be made consistent throughout the workplace to not only be aesthetically pleasing, but also so that information is easily accessible for all signs

Задание 1. Выполните письменный перевод следующих предложений:

Ergonomics is the scientific discipline concerned with designing according to the human needs, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance.

Information derived from ergonomists contributes to the design and evaluation of tasks, jobs, products, environments and systems in order to make them compatible with the needs, abilities and limitations of people.

Задание 2. Выполните письменно аннотацию текста

Unit 2. COMMON WORKPLACE HAZARD GROUPS

NOISE

In common use, the word noise means unwanted sound or noise pollution. In electronics noise can refer to the electronic signal corresponding to acoustic noise (in an audio system) or the electronic signal corresponding to the (visual) noise commonly seen as 'snow' on a degraded television or video image. In signal processing or computing it can be considered data without meaning; that is, data that is not being used to transmit a signal, but is simply produced as an unwanted by-product of other activities. In Information Theory, however, noise is still considered to be information. In a broader sense, film grain or even advertisements in web pages can be considered noise. Noise can block, distort, or change the meaning of a message in both human and electronic communication. In many of these areas, the special case of thermal noise arises, which sets a fundamental lower limit to what can be measured or signaled and is related to basic physical processes at the molecular level described by well-established thermodynamics considerations, some of which are expressible by relatively well known simple formulae.

Acoustic noise

When speaking of noise in relation to sound, what is commonly meant is meaningless sound of greater than usual volume. Thus, a loud activity may be referred to as noisy. However, conversations of other people may be called noise for people not involved in any of them, and noise can be any unwanted sound such as the noise of dogs barking, neighbours playing loud music, road traffic sounds, chainsaws, or aircraft, spoiling the quiet of the countryside.

For film sound theorists and practitioners at the advent of talkies c.1928/1929, noise was non-speech sound or natural sound and for many of them noise (especially asynchronous use with image) was desired over the evils of dialogue synchronized to moving image. The director and critic René Clair writing in 1929 makes a clear distinction between film dialogue and film noise and very clearly suggests that noise can have meaning and be interpreted: "...it is possible that an interpretation of noises may have more of a future in it. Sound cartoons, using "real" noises, seem to point to interesting possibilities" ('The Art of Sound' (1929)). Alberto Cavalcanti uses noise as a synonym for natural sound ('Sound in Films' (1939)) and as late as 1960, Siegfried Kracauer was referring to noise as non-speech sound ('Dialogue and Sound' (1960)).

Audio noise

In audio, recording, and broadcast systems audio noise refers to the residual low level sound (usually hiss and hum) that is heard in quiet periods of programme. In audio engineering it can also refer to the unwanted residual electronic noise signal that gives rise to acoustic noise heard as 'hiss'. This signal noise is commonly measured using A-weighting or ITU-R 468 weighting

Electronic noise

Electronic noise exists in all circuits and devices as a result of thermal noise, also referred to as Johnson Noise. Semiconductor devices can also contribute flicker noise and generation-recombination noise. In any electronic circuit, there exist random variations in current or voltage caused by the random movement of the electrons carrying the current as they are jolted around by thermal energy. Lower temperature results in lower thermal noise. This same phenomenon limits the minimum signal level that any radio receiver can usefully respond to, because there will always be a small but significant amount of thermal noise arising in its input circuits. This is why radio telescopes, which search for very low levels of signal from stars, use front-end low-noise amplifier circuits, usually mounted on the aerial dish, and cooled with liquid nitrogen.

Задание 1. Выполните письменный перевод следующего предложения:

In many of these areas, the special case of thermal noise arises, which sets a fundamental lower limit to what can be measured or signaled and is related to basic physical processes at the molecular level described by well-established thermodynamics considerations, some of which are expressible by relatively well known simple formulae.

Задание 2. Выполните письменно аннотацию текста

EMOTIONAL ABUSE

What is Emotional Abuse? Abuse is any behavior that is designed to control and subjugate another human being through the use of fear, humiliation, intimidation, guilt, coercion, manipulation etc. Emotional abuse is any kind of abuse that is emotional rather than physical in nature. It can include anything from verbal abuse and constant criticism to more subtle tactics, such as repeated disapproval or even the refusal to ever be pleased.

Emotional abuse is like brain washing in that it systematically wears away at the victim's self-confidence, sense of self-worth, trust in their own perceptions, and self-concept. Whether it is done by constant berating and belittling, by intimidation, or under the guise of "guidance," "teaching", or "advice," the results are similar. Eventually, the recipient of the abuse loses all sense of self and remnants of personal value. Emotional abuse cuts to the very core of a person, creating scars that may be far deeper and more lasting that physical ones. In fact there is research to this effect. With emotional abuse, the insults, insinuations, criticism and accusations slowly eat away at the victim's self-esteem until she is incapable of judging the situation realistically. She has become so beaten down emotionally that she blames herself for the abuse. Her self-esteem is so low that she clings to the abuser. Emotional abuse victims can become so convinced that they are worthless that they believe that no one else could want them. They stay in abusive situations because they believe they have nowhere else to go. Their ultimate fear is being all alone.

Задание. Выполните письменно аннотацию текста

Unit 3. HAZARDS, RISKS, OUTCOMES

HAZARD ANALYSIS

A hazard analysis is used to characterize the elements of risk. A hazard analysis is one tool within the discipline of system safety engineering. The results of a hazard analysis will drive the methods used for development of a system, both hardware and software.

A hazard is defined as a "Condition, event, or circumstance that could lead to or contribute to an unplanned or undesirable event." Seldom does a single hazard cause an accident. More often, an accident occurs as the result of a sequence of causes. A hazard analysis will consider system state, for example operating environment, as well as failures or malfunctions.

While in some cases safety risk can be eliminated, in most cases a certain degree of safety risk must be accepted. In order to quantify expected accident costs before the fact, the potential consequences of an accident, and the probability of occurrence must be considered. Assessment of risk is made by combining the severity of consequence with the likelihood of occurrence in a matrix. Risks that fall into the "unacceptable" category (e.g., high severity and high probability) must be mitigated by some means to reduce the level of safety risk.

Severity definitions

Severity	Definition
Catastrophic	Results in multiple fatalities and/or loss of the system
Hazardous	Reduces the capability of the system or the operator ability to cope with adverse conditions to the extent that there would be: Large reduction in safety margin or functional capability Crew physical distress/excessive workload such that operators cannot be relied upon to perform required tasks accurately or completely Serious or fatal injury to small number of occupants of aircraft (except operators) Fatal injury to ground personnel and/or general public
Major	Reduces the capability of the system or the operators to cope with adverse operating conditions to the extent that there would be: Significant reduction in safety margin or functional capability Significant increase in operator workload Conditions impairing operator efficiency or creating significant discomfort Physical distress to occupants of aircraft (except operator) including injuries Major occupational illness and/or major environmental damage, and/or major property damage
Minor	Does not significantly reduce system safety. Actions required by operators are well within their capabilities. Include: Slight reduction in safety margin or functional capabilities Slight increase in workload such as routine flight plan changes Some physical discomfort to occupants or aircraft (except operators) Minor occupational illness and/or minor environmental damage, and/or minor property damage
No Safety Effect	Has no effect on safety

Likelihood of occurrence

Likelihood	Definition
Probable	Qualitative: Anticipated to occur one or more times during the entire system/operational life of an item. Quantitative: Probability of occurrence per operational hour is greater than
Remote	Qualitative: Unlikely to occur to each item during its total life. May occur several times in the life of an entire system or fleet. Quantitative: Probability of occurrence per operational hour is less than , but greater than
Extremely Remote	Qualitative: Not anticipated to occur to each item during its total life. May occur a few times in the life of an entire system or fleet. Quantitative: Probability of occurrence per operational hour is less than but greater than
Extremely Improbable	Qualitative: So unlikely that it is not anticipated to occur during the entire operational life of an entire system or fleet. Quantitative: Probability of occurrence per operational hour is less than

Задание. Выполните письменно аннотацию текста

Unit 4. NATURAL HAZARDS.

TROPICAL ACTIVITY

Tropical activity in general consists of large air masses several hundred miles across with low pressure at the centre and with winds blowing around the centre in either a clockwise direction (southern hemisphere) or counterclockwise (northern hemisphere). Precipitation arises when a warm front is formed by an advancing mass of warm air, which moves up an inclined surface of retreating cold air and is chilled in the process of being lifted up resulting in rainfall.

The Great Sandy Desert has nearly all its rain during from monsoonal thunderstorms or the occasional tropical cyclone rain depression. Thunderstorms occur on an average of 20–30 days annually through most of the area. Although the desert has fairly high precipitation rates, due to the high rates of evaporation, this area remains an arid environment with vast areas of sands.

Other areas of the world which see these rare precipitation events in deserts are northwest Mexico, the southwestern United States, and southwest Asia. In North America, the Sonoran and Chihuahuan Deserts have received some tropical rainfall in the last 10 years. Tropical activity is rare in all deserts, but what rain does arrive there is important to the existence of the delicate ecosystem.

Raindrops have sizes ranging from 0.1 to up to approximately 9 mm (0.004 to 0.4 in) mean diameter, above which they tend to break up. Smaller drops are called cloud droplets, and their shape is spherical. As a raindrop increases in size, its shape becomes more oblate, with its largest cross-section facing the oncoming airflow. Contrary to the cartoon pictures of raindrops, their shape does not resemble a teardrop. High intensity storms are likely to be of short duration and low intensity storms can have a long duration. We can expect a less intense rainfall over a large area than we can over a small area.

The likelihood or probability of an event with a specified intensity and duration, is called the return period or frequency. The intensity of a storm can be predicted for any return period and storm duration, from charts based on historic data for the location.

Frequency of flooding. There is no way of telling when the next flood will arrive or how big it will be, but past flooding events can help provide some information as to what to expect. The term “1 in 10 year storm” describes a rainfall event which is rare and is only likely to occur once every 10 years, so it has a 10% likelihood any given year. The amount of rain which will fall will be greater and cause the flooding to be worse than for a 1 in 1 year event. The term “1 in 100 year storm” (see also 100-year flood) describes a rainfall event which is extremely rare and which will occur with a likelihood of only once in a century, so has a 1% likelihood in any given year. The amount of rain which will fall will be extreme and cause far greater flooding to be worse than for a 1 in 1 year event. As with all “probability” events, it is still possible to have multiple “1 in 100 Year Storms” in the same year.

A blizzard is a severe winter storm condition characterized by low temperatures, strong winds, and heavy blowing snow. A drought is an abnormally dry period when there is not enough water to support agricultural, urban or environmental water needs. Extended droughts can result in deaths by starvation or disease, and can result in wildfires. Scientists warn that global warming may result in more extensive droughts in coming years.

A hailstorm is a natural hazard where a thunderstorm produces numerous hailstones which damage the location in which they fall. Hailstorms can be especially devastating to farm fields, ruining crops and damaging equipment.

A heat wave is a hazard characterized by heat which is considered extreme and unusual in the area in which it occurs. Heat waves are rare and require specific combinations of weather events to take place, and may include temperature inversions, katabatic winds, or other phenomena. There is potential for longer term events causing global warming, including stadial events (the opposite to glacial 'ice age' events), or through human induced climatic warming.

Hurricane Katrina, tropical cyclone, and typhoon are different names for the same phenomenon: a cyclonic storm system that forms over the oceans. It is caused by evaporated water that comes off of the ocean and becomes a storm. The Coriolis Effect causes the storms to spin, and a hurricane is declared when this spinning mass of storms attains a wind speed greater than 74 mph.

Hurricane is used for these phenomena in the Atlantic and eastern Pacific Oceans, tropical cyclone in the Indian, typhoon in the western Pacific.

An ice age is a geologic period, but could also be viewed in the light of a catastrophic natural hazard, since in an ice age, the climate all over the world would change and places which were once considered habitable would then be too cold to permanently inhabit. A side effect of an ice age could possibly be a famine, caused by a worldwide drought.

An ice storm is a particular weather event in which precipitation falls as ice, due to atmosphere conditions Luis Mi. Ruiz. A tornado is a natural disaster resulting from a thunderstorm. Tornadoes are violent, rotating columns of air which can blow at speeds between 50 and 300 mph, and possibly higher. Tornadoes can occur one at a time, or can occur in large tornado outbreaks along squall lines or in other large areas of thunderstorm development. Waterspouts are tornadoes occurring over tropical waters in light rain conditions.

A wildfire is an uncontrolled fire burning in wildland areas. Common causes include lightning and drought but wildfires may also be started by human negligence or arson. They can be a threat to those in rural areas and also wildlife. Wildfires can also produce ember attacks, where floating embers set fire to buildings at a distance from the fire itself.

Famine is a social and economic crisis that is commonly accompanied by widespread malnutrition, starvation, epidemic disease and increased mortality. Although some famines occur - or are aggravated - by natural factors, it can and often is a result of economic or military policy that deprives people of the food that they require to survive.

Задание 1. Выполните письменно перевод следующих предложений:

Precipitation arises when a warm front is formed by an advancing mass of warm air, which moves up an inclined surface of retreating cold air and is chilled in the process of being lifted up resulting in rainfall.

There is no way of telling when the next flood will arrive or how big it will be, but past flooding events can help provide some information as to what to expect.

There is potential for longer term events causing global warming, including stadial events (the opposite to glacial 'ice age' events), or through human induced climatic warming.

Although some famines occur - or are aggravated - by natural factors, it can and often is a result of economic or military policy that deprives people of the food that they require to survive.

Задание 2. Выполните письменно аннотацию текста

Unit 5. MAN-MADE HAZARDS

2009 SAYANO-SHUSHENSKAYA HYDROELECTRIC POWER STATION ACCIDENT

Sayano–Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station is located on the Yenisei River, near Sayanogorsk in Khakassia, Russia. Before the accident, it was the largest power plant in Russia and the sixth-largest hydroelectric plant in the world, by average power generation.

The 2009 Sayano–Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station accident occurred at 00:13 GMT on 17 August 2009, (08:13 AM local time) when an explosion brought down the ceiling of the Sayano–Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station's turbine hall, leading to the flooding of the turbine hall and engine room. At the same time, an alarm was received at the power station's main control panel, and the power output fell to zero, resulting in a local blackout. The steel gates to the water intake pipes were closed manually at 9:20. The emergency diesel generator was started at 11:32. At 11:50, the opening of spillway gates was started. The opening of all 11 spillway gates was finished at 13:07. As of 30 August 2009 (2009 -08-30)^[update], 72 people have been found dead and 3 were still missing, presumably dead. The cause of the accident is still being investigated.

Nine out of the ten turbines were operating at the time, with a total output 4,400 MW. Turbine № 6 was undergoing scheduled maintenance, but was ready for a restart. In addition to turbine № 2, turbines № 7 and 9 also suffered severe damage and were partly destroyed, while the turbine room roof and ceilings fell on and caused a serious damage to turbines № 1 and 3, with slight damage to turbines № 4, 5, 8, and 10. Water immediately flooded the engine and turbine rooms and caused a transformer explosion. Transformers № 1 and 2 were destroyed, while transformers № 3, 4, and 5 were left in satisfactory condition. Other damage was also severe as the machinery hall was destroyed, including the roof, ceilings, and floor.

Power generation from the station ceased completely following the incident, with the resulting blackout in residential areas being alleviated by diverting power from other plants. Aluminium smelters in Sayanogorsk and Khakassia were completely cut off from the grid before power supplies were replaced using alternate power sources. Power to blacked out areas was fully restored by 19 August 2009. It is expected that electricity prices will have to increase after the disaster. Environmental impact

The accident has a severe environmental impact as the explosion caused an oil spill, releasing at least 40 tonnes of transformer oil which spread over 80 km (50 mi) downstream of Yenisei. The oil spill during the approximately 2-3 hour cutoff of river flow when all the gates of the dam were closed, killed 400 tons of cultivated trout in two riverside fisheries, with its impact on wildlife as yet unassessed. By 19:00 local time on 19 August 2009, the 15 km-long spill had reached Ust-Abakan, where it was cordoned off with floating barriers and chemical sorbents. The oil spill was fully removed by 25 August 2009.

After the accident, the spillway was regulated to decrease the water level of reservoir by 3 to 5 centimetres (1.2 to 2.0 in) per day. Flood water was pumped out from the engine room on 24 August 2009. The search and rescue operation was completed on 29 August 2009.

The exact cause of the accident has not yet been announced; the official report will be published by the end of September 2009. According to the preliminary information by the Federal Environmental, Technological and Atomic Supervisory Service (Rostekhnadzor), the cause was a combination of several technological factors. Terrorist attack and human factor theories have been ruled out. Also, the hydraulic pressure surge as a possible cause of the accident has been excluded by Rostekhnadzor. Failure of turbine № 2 or of its control system are the remaining scenarios under investigation. In the media, defective turbines and a rise in pressure in the pipes are speculated to be possible causes.

The plant is expected to restart its operations within 1 to 1½ months, while replacement of damaged turbines will take up to four years.

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Unit 6. FACTORS THREATENING THE ENVIRONMENT

DEPLETION OF THE OZONE LAYER

The ozone layer, a thin band in the stratosphere (layer of the upper atmosphere), serves to shield Earth from the Sun's harmful ultraviolet rays. In the 1970s, scientists discovered that chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)-chemicals used in refrigeration, air-conditioning systems, cleaning solvents, and aerosol sprays – destroy the ozone layer. CFCs release chlorine into the atmosphere; chlorine, in turn, breaks down ozone molecules. Be­cause chlorine is not affected by its interaction with ozone, each chlorine molecule has the ability to destroy a large amount of ozone for an extended period of time. The consequences of continued depletion of the ozone layer would he dramatic. Increased ultraviolet radia­tion would lead to a growing number of skin cancers and cataracts and also reduce the ability of immune sys­tems to respond to infection. Additionally, growth of the world's oceanic plankton, the base of most marine food chains, would decline. Plankton contains photosynthetic organisms that break down carbon dioxide. If plankton populations decline, it may lead to increased carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere and thus to global warming. Recent studies suggest that global warming, in turn, may increase the amount of ozone de­stroyed. Even if the manufacture of CFCs is immediately banned, the chlorine already released into the atmosphere will continue to destroy the ozone layer for many decades.

In 1987, an international pact called the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer set specific targets for all nations to achieve in order to reduce emissions of chemicals responsible for the destruc­tion of the ozone layer. Many people had hoped that this treaty would cause ozone loss to peak and begin to de­cline by the year 2000. In fact, in the fall of 2000 the hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica was the largest ever recorded. The hole the following year was slightly smaller, leading some to believe that the depletion of ozone had stabilized. Even if the most stringent prohibitions against CFCs are implemented, however, scientists expect that it will take at least 50 more years for the hole over Antarctica to close completely.

Задание. Выполните письменно перевод следующих предложений:

In the 1970s, scientists discovered that chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)-chemicals used in refrigeration, air-conditioning systems, cleaning solvents, and aerosol sprays – destroy the ozone layer.

In 1987, an international pact called the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer set specific targets for all nations to achieve in order to reduce emissions of chemicals responsible for the destruc­tion of the ozone layer.

Unit 7. CLIMATE CHANGE. GLOBAL WARMING

Like the glass panes in a greenhouse, certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere permit the Sun's radiation to heat Earth. At the same time, these gases retard the escape into space of the infrared energy radiated back out by Earth. This process is referred to as the greenhouse effect. These gases, primarily carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and water vapor, insulate Earth's surface, helping to maintain warm temperatures. Without these gases Earth would be a frozen planet with an average temperature of about -18 °C (about 0 °F) instead of a comfortable 15 °C (59 °F). If the concentration of these gases rises, they trap more heat within the atmosphere, causing worldwide temperatures to rise.

Within the last century, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased dramatically, largely because people burn vast amounts of fossil fuels - coal and petroleum and its derivatives. Average global temperature also has increased by about 0.6 Celsius degrees (2.4 Fahrenheit degree) within the past century. At­mospheric scientists have found that at least half of that temperature increase can be attributed to human activ­ity. They predict that unless dramatic action is taken, global temperature will continue to rise by 1.4 to 5.8 Cel­sius degrees (2,5 to 10,4 Fahrenheit degrees) over the next century. Although such an increase may not seem like a great difference, during the last ice age the global temperature was only 2.2 Celsius degrees (4 Fahrenheit degrees) cooler than it is presently. The consequences of such a modest increase in temperature may be devastating. Already scientists have de­tected a 40 percent reduction in the average thickness of Arctic ice. Other problems that may develop include a rise in sea levels that will completely inundate a number of low-lying island nations and flood many coastal cities, such as New York and Miami. Many plant and animal species will probably be driven into ex­tinction, agriculture will be severely disrupted in many regions, and the frequency of severe hurricanes and droughts will likely increase.

The geographic North Pole was last covered with water about 50 million years ago during the early part of the present Cenozoic Era.

The global view of the Arctic Ocean, captured using advanced radar that sees through all weather conditions, is enabling researchers to determine how global warming may be affecting the Polar Ice Cap. The Arctic sea ice is providing clues to the Earth's overall climatic condition. During the Cenozoic Era, the continents that formed Pangea, the super continent, had begun to move into their present positions. As these continents drifted northward, they formed the shoreline of the Arctic Ocean, which lies directly over and around the geographic North Pole. About 50 million years ago, the Arctic Ice Cap formed over the Arctic Ocean, virtually covering the entire sea with a sheet of ice. As the continents continued to move, climatic changes brought about by shifts in water and air currents caused the Earth to gradually cool down. This created the glaciers that mostly dominated the land masses about 10,000 to 1.8 million years ago, and that still exist today on Greenland. The same climatic conditions that created the glaciers also formed the Arctic Ice Cap. Yet the ice sheet covering the Arctic Ocean rests directly on top of the ocean instead of land, and it has remained relatively stable and frozen since it was formed. The Arctic Ice Cap is shrinking dramatically. Since the 1950s, when data was first collected on the Arctic, the ice cap has lost nearly 22 % of its volume. It is projected that in another 50 years, nearly half of the Arctic Ice Cap will be gone.

So what is going on? We know that the Arctic Ice Cap, frozen for 50 million years, is melting. We also know that above normal Arctic temperatures from the ocean water to the air currents account for the melting. Global warming is real, and the melting of the Arctic Ice Cap is one of its symptoms.

Scientists have determined that the Earth's surface temperature has increased an average of 1° F since the beginning of the 20th century, which is enough to trigger significant global climatic changes.

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Unit 8. NATURAL AND MAN-MADE DISASTERS

STAMPEDE

A stampede is an act of mass impulse among herd animals or a crowd of people in which the herd (or crowd) collectively begins running with no clear direction or purpose. Stampedes are believed to originate from biological responses in the brains and endocrine systems of herd animals. The response is believed to have evolved to help animals escape predators.

A large stampede will frequently eliminate anything in its path. In farmed animals, herd managers, sometimes called cowboys, attempt to turn the moving herd into itself, so that it runs in circles rather than self-destructing by running over a cliff or into a river, or from damaging human life or property by overrunning human settlements.

Specific animals associated with stampede behaviour are cattle, elephants, Blue Wildebeests, wild horses and humans.

Human stampedes. The term stampede, also known as a crush or trampling, commonly describes a sudden rush of a crowd of people, usually resulting in many injuries and death from suffocation and trampling. Human stampedes most often occur during religious pilgrimages, professional sporting and music events. They also often occur in times of mass panic, as a result of a fire or explosion, as people try to get away.

The annual Muslim Hajj in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, which is attended by millions of pilgrims, has increasingly suffered from stampedes and other disasters, even as authorities have constructed new walkways and instituted other traffic controls to prevent them.

Задание. Выполните письменно перевод следующих предложений:

Stampedes are believed to originate from biological responses in the brains and endocrine systems of herd animals.

In farmed animals, herd managers, sometimes called cowboys, attempt to turn the moving herd into itself, so that it runs in circles rather than self-destructing by running over a cliff or into a river, or from damaging human life or property by overrunning human settlements.

The annual Muslim Hajj in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, which is attended by millions of pilgrims, has increasingly suffered from stampedes and other disasters, even as authorities have constructed new walkways and instituted other traffic controls to prevent them.

Unit 9. EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT

Emergency managers are trained in a wide variety of disciplines that support them through out the emergency life-cycle. Professional emergency managers can focus on government and community preparedness (Continuity of Operations/Continuity of Government Planning), or private business preparedness. Training is provided by local, state, federal and private organizations and ranges from public information and media relations to high-level incident command and tactical skills such as studying a terrorist bombing site or controlling an emergency scene.

In the past, the field of emergency management has been populated mostly by people with a military or first responder background. Currently, the population in the field has become more diverse, with many experts coming from a variety of backgrounds and having no military or first responder history at all. Educational opportunities are increasing for those seeking undergraduate and graduate degrees in emergency management or a related field.

Professional certifications such as Certified Emergency Manager (CEM) and Certified Business Continuity Professional (CBCP) are becoming more common as the need for high professional standards is recognized by the emergency management community, especially in the United States.

In recent years the continuity feature of emergency management has resulted in a new concept, Emergency Management Information Systems (EMIS). For continuity and interoperability between emergency management stakeholders, EMIS supports the emergency management process by providing an infrastructure that integrates emergency plans at all levels of government and non-government involvement and by utilizing the management of all related resources (including human and other resources) for all four phases of emergencies.

Practitioners emergency management (disaster preparedness) come from an increasing variety of backgrounds as the field matures. Professionals from memory institutions (e.g., museums, historical societies, libraries, and archives) are dedicated to preserving cultural heritage—objects and records contained in their collections. This has been a major component within these fields, but now there is a heightened awareness following the events on 9/11 and the hurricanes in 2005.

To increase the opportunity for a successful recovery of valuable records, a well-established and thoroughly tested plan must be developed. This task requires the cooperation of a well-organized committee led by an experienced chairperson. Professional associations schedule regular workshops and hold focus sessions at annual conferences to keep individuals up to date with tools and resources in practice.

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Unit 10. EMERGENCY SERVICE

Emergency services are organizations which ensure public safety by addressing different emergencies. Some agencies exist solely for addressing certain types of emergencies whilst others deal with ad hoc emergencies as part of their normal responsibilities. Many agencies will engage in community awareness and prevention programs to help the public avoid, detect, and report emergencies effectively.

The availability of emergency services depends very heavily on location, and may in some cases also rely on the recipient giving payment or holding suitable insurance or other surety for receiving the service.

There are three services which are almost universally acknowledged as being core to the provision of emergency care to the populous, and are often government run. They would generally be summoned on a dedicated emergency telephone number, reserved for critical emergency calls. They are:

• Police — providing community safety and acting to reduce crime against persons and property

• Fire service — providing firefighters to deal with fire and rescue operations, and may also deal with some secondary emergency service duties

• Emergency medical service — providing ambulances and staff to deal with medical emergencies

• Other emergency services can be provided by one of the core services or by a separate government or private body.

• Army National Guard — to Provide emergency rescue and provide for the common defense and peace.

• Coastguard — Provide coastal patrols with a security function at sea, as well as invovlement in search and rescue operations

• Lifeboat — Dedicated providers of rescue lifeboat services, usually at sea (such as by the RNLI in the United Kingdom).

• Mountain rescue — to provide search and rescue in mountainous areas, and sometimes in other wilderness environments.

• Cave rescue — to rescue people injured, trapped or lost during caving explorations.

• Mine rescue — specially trained and equipped to rescue miners trapped by fires, explosions, cave-ins, toxic gas, flooding, etc.

• Technical rescue — other types of technical or heavy rescue, but usually specific to a discipline (such as swift water).

• Search and rescue — can be discipline-specific, such as urban, wildland, maritime, etc.

• Bomb disposal — to render safe hazardous explosive ordnance, such as terrorist devices or unexploded wartime bombs.

• Blood/organ transplant supply — to provide organs or blood on an emergency basis, such as the National Blood Service of the United Kingdom.

• Emergency management — to provide and coordinate resources during large-scale emergencies.

• Amateur radio emergency communications — to provide communications support to other emergency services.

Civil emergency services

These groups and organisations respond to emergencies and provide other safety-related services either as a part of their on-the-job duties, as part of the main mission of their business or concern, or as part of their hobbies.

• Public utilities — safeguarding gas, electricity and water, which are all potentially hazardous if infrastructure fails

• Emergency road service — provide repair or recovery for disabled or crashed vehicles

• Emergency social services

• Community emergency response teams — help organize facilities such as rest centers during large emergencies

• Disaster relief — such as services provided by the Red Cross and Salvation Army

• Famine relief teams

• Amateur radio communications groups — provide communications support during emergencies

• Poison Control — providing specialist support for poisoning

• Animal control — can assist or lead response to emergencies involving animals

• Wildlife services

Effective emergency service management requires agencies from many different services to work closely together and to have open lines of communication. Most services do, or should, have procedures and liaisons in place to ensure this, although absence of these can be severely detrimental to good working. There can sometimes be tension between services for a number of other reasons, including professional versus voluntary crew members, or simply based on area or division.

To aid effective communications, different services may share common practices and protocol for certain large-scale emergencies. In the UK, commonly used shared protocols include CHALET and ETHANE while in the US, the Department of Homeland Security has called for nationwide implementation of the National Incident Management System (NIMS), of which the Incident Command System (ICS) is a part.

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