Токарева_English for Foresters

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convince the interviewers of his/her suitability for the job.

A few days ago an advertisement for a job appeared in the newspaper: A Forest Company implementing international standards for environmental forest management requires a forestry officer for their new department.

Some of you decided to apply for this job, while the others are going to be interviewers. Divide into groups of 6, every student should choose a role.

List of roles:

1.Interviewers:

Paul Bateman, the head of the Personnel Department

Nora Hokin, the Personnel Manager

2.Applicants:

James Thompson. Aged 37, not of outstanding natural ability, but very hard-working. Married with 3 children, until now a forester in another region of the country.

Sarah Crow. Aged 27, brilliant but not very hard-working. Single, worked as a teacher at the Polytechnic.

Alan Burns. Aged 54, a researcher, reliable and energetic. Married with no children, has just come from the Amazonian rainforest.

Daphne Stocks. Aged 40, enthusiastic and ambitious. Married with two children, until now a manager at the pulp and paper factory.

Interviewers:

decide what questions to ask and get ready to explain the job and to say what the person will have to do. You think that the person should have some experience, must be energetic, ambitious and enthusiastic. You are interested in the results of his/her studies and experience at previous jobs.

interview the applicants one by one. Take notes (name, appearance, general impression, speech, answers to questions).

give the applicants the opportunity to put questions to you.

analyze the results of the interviews, discuss them with your colleagues, choose the most suitable applicant and announce your decision to the applicants.

Applicants:

introduce yourselves. Describe briefly your experience at previous jobs and the good results you achieved there.

be ready to answer some standard questions like "Why are you looking for a job?" and unexpected ones, like "What are your strong points?" and "What are your weak points?" When speaking about your failures or mistakes be sure to emphasize the conclusion you have drawn after analyzing your failures and what they taught you.

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be ready to say what you can do for the company, how you see your future duties, and what salary you are expecting.

at the end of the interview you may ask some questions. You should enquire about what your future job will entail, what possible difficulties there are in store for you, and what the other staff members are like.

UNIT 19

19.1. Прочитайте интернациональные слова и определите их значение:

specialize, incorporation, statistics, capital, transnational, operate, potential, stimulate, active, interaction, collection, publication, interval, effect, moratorium

19.2. Прочитайте и переведите текст.

Forms of Cooperation (II)

Industrial development. Significant international flows of private sector investments are channeled into forestry and forest industries development, particularly in the highly capital intensive pulp and paper sector. The growth of large transnational corporations, which operate in many countries and control large budgets, has always been important and has potential for even greater international impact. Transnational corporation investments in the forestry sector, based on global marketing strategies, already have a major impact on the economies of particular countries such as Chile, Papua New Guinea and New Zealand. Interdependence between the private sector and governments is growing as a result.

In countries where governmental institutions are relatively weak, problems have arisen due to failure to adequately supervise the operations of multinationals. The result has been cases of irresponsible environmental behaviour by some unscrupulous investors. The international community should in such cases provide assistance for strengthening government institutions; it could also promote voluntary or obligatory codes of conduct for the industry.

International and regional collaboration. Collaboration among countries has been stimulated particularly by the TFAP. Progress in donor cooperation has been facilitated by regular meetings of forestry advisers to mul-

14 EEC – European Economic Community

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tilateral and bilateral aid agencies. FAO s role as the lead international agency for cooperation in forestry is reflected in its TFAP coordination function. The scope for regional initiatives is demonstrated by the EEC which, on the one hand, is providing substantial forestry assistance to tropical countries, while on the other it is promoting measures within Europe for forest protection, forestry development in backward areas, forest product improvement and the reforestation of land no longer required for agriculture. Forestry is also an increasingly important area of cooperation for such regional political arrangements as the Andean Pact, the Amazon Cooperation Treaty of the ASEAN.

Involvement of diverse interest groups. This development is acquiring a new significance. In addition to longstanding international consultative fora, many interest groups such as NGOs at all levels now wish to more directly influence decision-making. National governments are consulting more widely to seek the views of different interest groups, who depend in one way or another on forest resources. At international level, NGOs are playing an increasingly active role in influencing the future of forestry; in spite of their diverse nature, interaction between them and official agencies is developing rapidly.

Services. FAO s remit includes the provision of information and the collection and regular publication of forest products statistics and outlooks. This is a service of considerable value to all countries. There is a need to broaden the range of statistics made available and to expand internationally available services, such as facilitating the transfer of appropriate new technologies and their application to forestry, providing sector planning assistance, and support to strengthening institutional arrangements for forestry.

Global monitoring. Global assessment of forest resources has been undertaken at ten-yearly intervals. The remote sensing methodology employed and accuracy achieved have made substantial advances – forest degradation is to be assessed as well as deforestation – and, in future, the scope of global monitoring will need to be extended further to cover the effects of climate change. This illustrates the link between technological progress and international cooperation. In future it will be necessary to monitor the status of forests more frequently.

International agreements. While forest management remains in essence a national problem, several facets of forestry problems such as endangered species are the object of specific international agreements. The international dimension of forests and their functions have excited interest in the

15 ASEAN – Association of South East Asian Nations

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scope for a global resource based international agreement.

Such an agreement provides a framework for promoting balance between conservation and development. As such, it is equally beneficial to developing as to industrialized countries which jointly face calls for a moratorium or ban on forest utilization of any kind over large areas of forest. For this reason, the complex process of preparing and negotiating a forest instrument is worthwhile for both developing and developed countries.

19.3. Запомните слова и выражения:

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19.4. Образуйте от прилагательных наречия с помощью суффикса -ly. Употребите их в собственных предложениях:

high, particular, relative, adequate, regular, wide, official, rapid, considerable, international, frequent, equal, joint

19.5. Переведите словосочетания, опираясь на содержание тек-

ста (упр. 19.2):

forest industries development, transnational corporation investments, forest product improvement, private sector investments, government institutions, donor cooperation, TFAP coordination function, forest products statistics and outlooks, sector planning assistance, remote sensing methodology

19.6. Cоотнесите термины (a) с соответствующими определени-

ями (b):

19.7. Заполните пропуски в предложениях, пользуясь информацией текста (упр. 19.2):

1.Significant investments are channeled into …

c)transnational corporations

2.Transnational corporation investments in the forestry sector of Chile, Papua New Guinea and New Zealand have a positive … on the countries' economies.

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3. Due to inadequate supervision of multinationals' operations some investors have shown irresponsible ….

4. Certain measures have been promoted in Europe for forestry development in ….

5. Many … such as NGOs are playing an increasingly active role in influencing the future of forestry.

c)interest groups

6.At present … of forest resources provides data about forest degradation and deforestation.

7.In global assessment of forest resources the … is used.

c)effect of climate change

8.… are the object of specific international agreements.

c)climatic changes

19.8.Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на герундий:

1.Holding international forestry fora helps to establish contact and dialogue among countries.

2.One of the major aims of the World Forestry Congress is reviewing all aspects of the forestry discipline.

3.There is a number of governmental and non-governmental organizations responsible for protecting forests.

4.Channelling investments into forestry development of particular countries is of great significance for their economies.

5.The EEC demonstrates the scope for regional initiatives by providing substantial forestry assistance to tropical countries and promoting measures within Europe for forest protection, forestry development in backward areas.

6.In the field of decision-making national governments are interested in seeking the views of different interest groups.

7.Transferring new technologies and their applying to forestry are internationally available services offered by FAO.

8.Monitoring the status of forests will be executed more frequently to assess adequately forest degradation and deforestation.

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9. Promoting balance between conservation and development of forests is equally beneficial to all countries.

19.9. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на ing- формы:

1.Plants help sustain life on earth by changing solar energy into chemical energy.

2.In some places, trees must be able to withstand long periods of cold and drought, endure the damaging effects of wind and snow, and do their growing in a season that is only three or four moths long.

3.Much can be learned about the trunk by examining the stump of a fleshy cut mature tree where the central area is usually darker.

4.Too poor to harbor earthworms and other soil-mixing creatures, the sandy soil soon becomes so hard that the trees' roots have difficulty pushing through it in search of water and nutrients.

5.From towering oaks to the Arctic's dwarf willow, which is only a few inches tall at maturity, all deciduous trees discard their food-producing leaves in the fall.

6.Temperature is a dominant factor in determining the area in which plantlife will grow.

7.Declaring that acid rain was killing the wildlife in hundreds of Scandinavian lakes, a Swedish scientist Svante Odén publicly accused Germany and England of waging a kind of chemical warfare against his country.

8.We can easily differentiate a hardwood from a softwood by observing their physical features.

9.Merely holding a tree upright puts a great strain on the roots.

19.10. Ответьте на вопросы по тексту (упр. 19.2):

1.Why are large transnational corporations important for forestry?

2.What problems arise in the countries where governmental institutions are relatively weak?

3.What agency is the lead international one for cooperation in forest-

ry?

4.What agency is responsible for regional initiatives both in tropical countries and in Europe?

5.How are diverse interest groups involved in decision-making?

6.What kind of service does FAO provide?

7.What can be assessed with the help of the remote sensing method-

ology?

8.What are specific international agreements dedicated to?

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19.11. Укажите, являются ли данные утверждения истинными или ложными в соответствии с содержанием текста (упр. 19.2):

1.Significant international flows of private sector investments are channeled into pulp and paper sector.

2.Transnational corporation investments in the forestry have a major impact on the economies of such countries as Poland, Germany and Austria.

3.Progress in donor cooperation has been facilitated by irresponsible environmental behaviour of some unscrupulous investors.

4.The Andean Pact, the Amazon Cooperation Treaty of the ASEAN and some other regional political arrangements facilitate cooperation development in forestry.

5.NGOs are among interest groups that wish to influence decisionmaking more directly.

6.FAO provides collection and regular publication of forest products statistics and outlooks.

7.Global assessment of forest resources is undertaken every year.

8.Forest management is the object of international agreements, while endangered species are a national problem.

19.12.Выпишите из текста (упр. 19.2) понятия, относящиеся к каждой из упомянутых форм международного сотрудничества. Дайте краткое описание каждой из них.

19.13.Подготовьте краткий пересказ текста (упр. 19.2).

19.14.Найдите необходимую информацию и подготовьте минидоклад на одну из предложенных тем:

International conventions and agreements related to forests

Application of GIS and remote sensing technologies in forestry

Forest inventory methods and modeling

19.15. Обсудите в группах:

Competence development

Competence is the ability to do something to an acceptable standard and it is normally gained through a combination of knowledge, experience and expertise. The best companies usually have a strategy for developing the level of competence in their staff.

Imagine that you work for a fast-growing and successful forest products company with worldwide sales. You have recently recruited a few young

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sales and marketing representatives to work on the launch of a new forest product for the international market. You have put the new recruits through a series of interviews and exercises to assess their need for future career development.

Your task is to define a training plan for the new members of your team. Divide into groups of 4, each student should choose the role from the list below.

List of roles:

general manager of the company

the company's human resources manager

sales and marketing manager

business manager

You need to agree on:

the content of the training programme and priorities (What competences should the new recruits improve and in what succession? What kind of training should they have?)

time scale (How long will the training programme be? How much time will each training course last?)

budget (How much money should be spent on the new recruits' future career development? Where can the company get a financial support to the programme?)

The list of competences may include: marketing and sales, product knowledge, computer skills, project management, company knowledge, customer orientation, English, interpersonal skills, approach to change, teamwork.

If necessary add your own ideas.

Draw up a detailed training programme for the new recruits. Present it to the whole class.

UNIT 20

20.1. Прочитайте интернациональные слова и определите их значение:

hydrological, basin, exploitation, address, effectiveness, formulation, criticism, systematic, circulation, version, situation, mobilize, ignore

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20.2. Прочитайте и переведите текст.

Forestry Issues

A number of general issues, which relate to the conservation and development of forest resources worldwide, may be identified. They require consideration if the international framework for cooperation and coordination in forestry is to continue to evolve.

Current arrangements for international cooperation are somewhat overstretched by the need to implement the far-reaching changes that are required to address the problems and opportunities of forestry development in the tropics while also responding to the changing situation in non-tropical countries.

In particular, the momentum of the TFAP must be maintained while its effectiveness as a concerted international effort is increased. It must become a long-term programme making it country-driven and process-oriented; proposed new features for the TFAP include country capacity projects, improved procedures in relation to environmental protection, intersectoral planning and strategy formulation. The new institutional arrangements are to ensure greater responsiveness to particular country needs while maintaining international-level cooperation.

In the temperate and boreal regions, forestry is confronted by serious air pollution problems, which are not confined within national boundaries as "acid rain" has demonstrated. The forests in these zones are also affected by significant loss of biodiversity. Major management problems are evident, particularly in Eastern Europe. In principle, all forest resources need to be protected, planned and managed according to the same rules of sustainable development, whether they occur in developed or developing countries. There is therefore a strong case for increased international forestry cooperation to address these temperate zone problems. The issue is how best to generate this wider cooperation and within what framework that would be capable of responding quickly and sensitively to these needs.

There is a range of forestry problems which can only be tackled effectively by cooperative action between nations and between sectors. Examples are the interrelationships between water supply, flood control and watershed management in the countries forming the hydrological basins of rivers such as the Amazon, Mekong or Nile, and the interaction between land use, tenure, population growth, shifting cultivation, agricultural development and deforestation in many African countries. Adequate consultation procedures are a first step, but joint action through programmes based on common interest should follow.

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What happens to the forests depends largely on the actions of others, with allegiances outside the forestry sector, and what happens in other sectors is affected by the way that forest resources are managed. The challenge is to develop forms of cooperative approach suited to crossing established political, sectoral and disciplinary boundaries while at the same time not undermining the effectiveness of existing organizational arrangements.

The difficulty of assessing what is happening to the world's forest resources, their present state, the changes taking place in them and the effectiveness of remedial measures is due partly to lack of information of the right kind and partly to the difficulties of access to the information that has been collected. This issue has come to the fore as a source of misunderstanding and criticism by interest groups and sometimes of misinformation of the public, but has wider implications for the development of appropriate actions. It arises mainly because of shortcomings in the collection and storage of information at national and international levels. Solution of the problem requires systematic international cooperation in data collection and storage, together with general acceptance of the principle of free circulation of information.

Growing public interest in the environment demands a wider range of statistics on forest cover and what is happening to it; at the same time, it is necessary to expand the channels for dissemination of available information. Governments and parastatal sector agencies are normally served reasonably well, but the time appears to have come for "popular" versions of sector statistics to be more readily available, including through the media, so as to reach the general public.

Sustainable development has international implications. In relation to national economic development, it involves enhancing human and institutional capabilities and building up economic potential; in relation to forest management, it implies the sound management and wise utilization of forest resources to ensure continuity in the flow of tangible and intangible benefits derived from the forests for the benefit of present and future generations and the global community at large.

Sustainability must eventually depend on local commitment and selfreliance and it may be necessary that the international community provide active support to development alternatives which alleviate the dependence of countries on deriving the short-term benefits of excessive exploitation of their forest resources which in turn jeopardizes broader and longer-term interests. In the long run this may be achieved through the adoption of an international forest instrument. But meanwhile, other, quicker methods of tackling the problem in a less comprehensive way are also required.

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The current pattern of cooperation, particularly in terms of funding flows, shows marked disparity among beneficiary countries in amount of assistance received. Aid is severely bunched with a few countries receiving the bulk of it; consequently, some countries whose resource situation justifies greater inflows get little or none. Difficulties therefore arise over how to ensure that countries in need of assistance in forestry receive the necessary support and resources at international level.

The question is how increased international resources are to be mobilized in response to the urgency and importance of tackling current forestry problems and of the need to ensure that countries most in need have access to these resources. The most pressing needs are in the tropics, both dry and humid but it also applies to non-tropical countries. Improved cooperative arrangements are necessary to facilitate and speed up the flow of aid to the forestry sector, and to influence international priorities without undermining donor initiatives; there appears to be a clear need for multilateralism in resolving this problem.

With regard to the situation within countries, the forestry sector is competing for limited local and foreign resources with many other pressing demands such as debt repayments, food security or political obligations. In competing, forestry and natural resources are generally at a disadvantage because national accounts largely ignore the intrinsic value of the resources, their non-monetary contribution to development, and the intangible but vital importance of their role in ensuring environmental stability. The opportunity costs due to lost production potential if forests were to be destroyed are also not considered in national accounting.

A comparable difficulty arises because the absorptive capacity of some countries for aid is relatively low, regardless of the relative importance of their forestry problems or significance of their forest resources. This is an issue for all the actors in international cooperation, given the increasing complexity of forestry and the rapid increase in activities. The international community must be ready and willing to assist actively to build up the capacity of such countries. Absorptive capacity is a problem not only for developing countries but also probably for Eastern Europe. Beneficiary countries must first recognize and seriously resolve to correct this deficiency in all its aspects. Adequate local capability is a sine qua non (an obligatory condition) for sustained socio-economic development.

20.3. Запомните слова и выражения:

20.4. Переведите слова, обращая внимание на префикс mis- в

значении неправильно, ложно:

misunderstanding, misinformation, misprint, misapplication, misapprehension, miscalculation, misfortune, mishandle, misinterpret, mislead, mismanagement, mispronunciation, mistrust.

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20.5. Переведите словосочетания, опираясь на содержание тек-

ста (упр. 20.2):

far-reaching changes, country capacity projects, international-level cooperation, data collection and storage, growing public interest, parastatal sector agencies

20.6. Найдите в тексте (упр. 20.2) синонимы следующих слов:

necessity, to react, to guarantee, northern, to restrict, to create, to affect, border, lack, to require, to get, help, significance

20.7. Заполните пропуски в предложениях, пользуясь информацией текста (упр. 20.2):

1.Current arrangements for international cooperation … to the changing situation in non-tropical countries.

2.Pollution problems are not … within national boundaries.

3.The problem of interrelationships between water supply, … and watershed management can only be … effectively by cooperative action of several nations.

4.The forms of cooperative approach should … but not … the effectiveness of existing organizational arrangements.

5.It's difficult to assess what is happening to the world's forest resources due to lack of information and difficulties of … to it.

6.Systematic international cooperation in … collection and storage is

needed.

7.… of forest resources helps countries derive the short-term benefits but … broader and longer-term interests.

8.As to the importance of tackling current forestry problems, the most … are in the tropics.

9.In competing with other pressing demands at a national level, forestry and natural resources are generally ….

20.8. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на ing- формы:

1.Only by preserving flora and fauna people will be able to turn the planet into a world fit for all to live in.

2.Canada's forest soils are acidic, resulting in various degrees of leaching of minerals out of the topsoil, thus making them relatively infertile for agriculture.

3.Scientists can read the story of environmental and forest changes

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by examining a succession of small lakes and ancient lake beds.

4.Preserving and developing the essential functions of the forests must therefore be tackled as a worldwide undertaking on three fronts: ecological, economic and social.

5.Scientists in Europe and the United States are trying to develop disease-resistant varieties by nurturing naturally resistant sprouts that grow from the stumps of infected trees.

6.The forests provide some important services, such as maintaining water supplies, purifying the air, and guarding against floods and landslides.

7.Clear-cutting is a tool for getting softwoods quickly, in massive quantities, with the best chance for survival and growth.

8.A layer around the reproductive structures protects the spores and gametes from drying out.

9.By branching and rebranching, roots become a strong support.

20.9. Заполните пропуски в предложениях глаголом be, выражающим долженствование, в соответствующей форме. Переведите полученные предложения:

1.A number of general issues require consideration if the international framework for cooperation and coordination in forestry … to continue to evolve.

2.The momentum of the TFAP … to be maintained while its effectiveness as a concerted international effort is increased.

3.The new institutional arrangements … to ensure greater responsiveness to particular country needs.

4.All forest resources … to be protected, planned and managed according to the same rules of sustainable development.

5.Some forestry problems … to be tackled effectively by cooperative action between nations and between sectors.

6.Sustainable development … to ensure continuity in the flow of tangible and intangible benefits derived from the forests for the benefit of present and future generations.

7.Increased international resources … to be mobilized in response to the urgency and importance of tackling current forestry problems.

8.The international community … to assist actively to build up the capacity of some countries.

20.10. Ответьте на вопросы по тексту (упр. 20.2):

1.What do the proposed new features for the TFAP include?

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2.Are the pollution problems confined within national boundaries?

3.What problems demand a great attention in the countries forming the hydrological basins of the Amazon, Mekong and Nile rivers?

4.What difficulties do many African countries face?

5.Why does the assessment of the world's forest resources require systematic international cooperation in data collection and storage?

6.What does sustainability involve in relation to national economic development?

7.What kind of disparity does the current pattern of cooperation

show?

8.Why are improved cooperative arrangements in the forestry sector necessary?

9.Why are forestry and natural resources at a disadvantage in competing with other pressing demands?

10.What can be done to raise the absorptive capacity of developing countries for aid?

20.11. Укажите, являются ли данные утверждения истинными или ложными в соответствии с содержанием текста (упр. 20.2):

1.The forests in the temperate and boreal regions are affected by significant loss of biodiversity.

2.Forest resources must be protected, planned and managed according to the rules of sustainable development.

3.What happens to the forests depends little on the action of nonforest sectors.

4.Lack of information and difficulties of access to it results in misunderstanding and misinformation.

5.Sustainability must depend on local commitment and self-reliance, but an international forest instrument should be adopted.

6.The current pattern of cooperation, particularly in terms of funding flows, shows marked disparity among beneficiary countries in amount of assistance received.

7.In competing with other national pressing demands, forestry and natural resources are in an advantageous position.

8.National accounts largely ignore the intrinsic value of the resources, their non-monetary contribution to development, and the intangible but vital importance of their role in ensuring environmental stability.

9.A comparable difficulty arises because the absorptive capacity of some countries for aid is relatively low.

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20.12. Расположите пункты плана в логической последовательности на основании содержания текста (упр. 20.2):

1.Absorptive capacity

2.Transnational and intersectoral harmonization

3.Organizational arrangements

4.Sustainability

5.Information for global and regional monitoring

6.Timely and equitable access to resources

20.13.Пользуясь планом, полученным в упр. 20.12, подготовьте краткий пересказ текста (упр. 20.2).

20.14.Обсудите в группах:

International forestry conference

A good conference helps people working in the same field learn about the latest developments and network with fellow professionals.

More and more people get concerned about forest problems. There are special movements for forest protection. A lot of articles about intensive forest cutting appear in the newspapers. Much is being done at the governmental level. But all the decisions taken should be based on scientific research. That is why conferences on forestry problems are important not only for forest experts but for the public, as well.

Imagine that you are invited to take part in the International Forestry Conference.

One of you will be a chairman, while all the rest are going to be the conference participants. Some of the students should prepare a presentation on the topic they are especially interested in.

List of topics:

Forests and needs of mankind

Forest goods and services

Recent developments in the forest sector

Wood and non-wood products

Forest fire protection

Management, conservation and sustainable development of forest resources

Key issues in the forest sector today

The role of forests in the global carbon budget

Illegal activities and corruption in the forest sector

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If necessary add your own ideas.

Presenters:

Prepare the text of your presentation, visual aids, handouts and the necessary equipment. Giving a presentation, don't forget to:

greet the audience,

introduce yourself or thank the person who has introduced you,

define clearly the purpose of your presentation,

outline its main points,

give a summary of the main proposals in conclusion,

thank the audience for their attention and invite them to ask ques-

tions.

Chairman:

Open the proceedings by pointing out the importance of the event, its main goals, and the number of the participants. Introduce each presenter, giving him/her the floor, conduct all the discussions and close the conference.

Other conference participants:

Listen to the presentations. Ask questions to the presenters.

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ПРИЛОЖЕНИЕ

ТЕКСТЫ ДЛЯ САМОСТОЯТЕЛЬНОГО ИЗУЧЕНИЯ

A silent War between Plants and Insects

1. Read the text and make up the list of ways that plants use to fight insects.

It looked like a dying forest. Even though it was summer, some trees were bare of leaves. Almost every branch and twig of the maple and oak trees was crawling with Tussock moth caterpillars. Watching the caterpillars munch their way through the leaves might lead one to conclude that the plants are helpless victims (figure 5.1). Since trees cannot move, they seem to have no defense against their ravenous enemies. Moreover, some insects resemble sticks, twigs or leaves and it is very difficult for predators to spot them. Stick insects (figure 5.2) invading plants get their name from the way they camouflage themselves.

However, new knowledge about plant reactions shows that plants actually do take an active role in fending off invaders. Plants fight their enemies in ways that cannot be seen.

They produce sophisticated chemical weapons which they can use in a variety of ways. In fact, chemicals produced by plants are more effective in controlling insect popu-lations than any chemicals produced by people.

Some of the chemical defense mechanisms of plants are quite unusual. For example, the sugar maple

tree provides a chemical guessing game for leaf-eating insects. The maple produces groups of leaves all over the tree that differ in chemical content. Some leaves contain large amounts of tannins or other chemicals that are poisonous to insects. Some leaves are rich in nutrients, while yet other groups

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of leaves are so low in nutrients that they do not provide adequate nourishment for the insects. Hungry insects in this tree must crawl actively all over the tree to find sufficient food. This action makes it much more likely that the insects themselves will be eaten by predators.

Another tactic for depriving insects of food is used by different tree species such as oak, alder, or willow. When leaves of these trees are eaten by insects, the leaves that grow back have large amounts of tannins and other poisons that discourage further attack. Even more amazing is the fact that other trees in the area seem to be warned of the danger of attack. Scientists think that nearby trees might be able to de-

tect gaseous chemicals released by destroyed leaves.

Trees are not the only kind of plants that fight back against insect attacks. Other plants, such as daisies and marigolds, produce chemicals that become deadly only after the insects have eaten the leaves and are exposed to light. Some of these chemicals react in sunlight to cause chromosome abnormalities that result in the death of the insects.

The next time you see a plant with chewed leaves, think about the leaves that did not get eaten. Perhaps they will remind you that plants have many defensive actions that cannot be seen in their silent war with insects.

2. Read the text again and describe each defensive tactic used by plants in their war with insects.

Concepts of Tree Disease

1. Read the statements, express your agreement or disagreement with each of them:

1.Diseases may be caused by both biotic and abiotic factors.

2.It is not necessary to know the cause of a tree disease.

3.The process of determining the cause of a tree disease is known as diagnosis.

4.Visible evidence of a tree disease is either a symptom or a sign.