Токарева_English for Foresters

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CHAPTER 3

SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT

UNIT 11

11.1. Прочитайте интернациональные слова и определите их значение:

principle, energy, typically, equivalent, cement, component, myriad, dynamic, imperative, regime, fragmentation, urbanization, context, reality, concept

11.2. Прочитайте и переведите текст.

Sustainable Forestry in the United States

Forests are major ecosystems. About a quarter of land worldwide is forested; around a third in the US, and nearly half in both Oregon and Washington. Extensive forest cover is primarily found in the Rocky mountains and to the west and east of the Mississippi (figure 3.1).

These forests are vital for life, and yield many benefits:

One-third of the land in the US currently has forest cover, and twothirds of the runoff used for water supply comes from these forested lands; they offer extremely high-quality water.

Wood products are derived from an environmentally superior material. A truly renewable resource (when harvested sustainably), products from wood are typically produced with less energy than an equivalent product made from non-wood resources (e.g. metal and cement).

Forests are a major component in Earth's life support system, and they provide essential habitats for innumerable organisms.

Less than 40% of terrestrial carbon stores are found in forests, but wood products account for even more. Forests, in addition to sequestering carbon, are net producers of oxygen.

Forests represent different things to different people, most people value forests in many different ways. Even in the new millennium people find jobs, a quality of life, recreation, subsistence living, and a myriad of cultural and spiritual values based on the forest resources.

Forests are as dynamic as the human societies dependent on them. There are many forces of global change that has made the search for sustainability more imperative. Population growth, lifestyle choices, increasing demand,

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and human conflict – all exact their toll on the resource.

These are some of the global human impacts we can identify on forests:

Figure 3.1. Forest cover in the USA

clearing of forest for agriculture, fuelwood gathering, livestock grazing, altered fire regimes, unsustainable harvests, water diversions, heavy recreation, urbanization, alien species introduction and native species extinction, air and water pollution, forest fragmentation.

Forces of change will present an ever-changing context for sustainability. The challenge in forestry will be to keep forest lands in forest use and keep the diversity of values, uses, products, benefits, and services of forest ecosystems productive and resilient in the face of forces of global change.

Much of the pressure placed on the forest resources is the result of an ever-growing population. We need to consider human population growth as we define sustainable forestry. With population growth we will be expected to produce more products from a smaller and smaller resource base. The future reality is that smaller forest area must serve more people in more ways, and the future reality must be met by forest management that targets sustainability.

The concept of sustainability is captured nicely in the definition given

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by the Society of American Foresters: enhance human well being by using, developing and protecting resources at a rate and in a manner that enables people to meet their current needs while also providing future generations with the means to meet their needs as well; simultaneously meet environmental, economic and community aspirations.

Currently, the needs are quite significant when we discuss wood use. Worldwide, industrial wood use has increased 50 percent since 1960, to 53 billion cubic feet per year. 75 percent of the industrial wood is used by 24 percent of the world's people.

Mixed forest ownership adds to the complexity of sustainable forestry. Not every forest land owner or manager has the same management objectives, so each will add or detract from sustainability goals (social, economic, and ecological) to varying degrees. For example, the federal government owns nearly half the forestland in Oregon, where in the early 1990s federal managers have reduced the timber harvest. Industry lands, although smaller in area than public forests, produce the majority of timber in Oregon.

Speaking of mixed forest ownership, not every forest landowner owns the same quality of forest land. The majority of the most productive forest land is privately owned; the majority of low production lands are publicly owned.

11.3. Запомните слова и выражения:

11.4. Переведите словосочетания, опираясь на содержание тек-

ста (упр. 11.2):

water supply, high-quality water, Earth's life support system, population growth, lifestyle choice, fire regime, native species extinction, resource base, management objective, sustainability goals, timber harvest, low production lands

11.5. Определите, какое слово не относится к данной горизонтальной группе:

11.6. Cоотнесите термины (a) с соответствующими определениями (b):

11.7. Измените предложения, используя Simple Passive:

Образец: Coniferous forest occupies nearly 35% of the total forested area of the world. – Nearly 35% of the total forested area of the world are occupied by coniferous forest.

1.Scientists recognize two general types of grasslands: steppe and savannah.

2.We know Brazilian savannahs as "campos".

3.We usually designate the native grasslands of western United States as range areas.

4.Man modified climate on both a local and a regional scale.

5.The ministry approved an Environmental Programme for Forestry

in 1994.

6.The Programme took into consideration ecological values and wood production objectives in the boreal coniferous forest zone.

7.This strategic framework set out the objectives and procedures to be used in the sustainable management of Finnish forests up to the year 2005.

8.Drought increases the danger that wildfire will disrupt the orderly procession of seasonal changes.

9.The forest and nature conservation legislation will specify valuable

habitats.

10.They will cultivate stands of spruce, pine and larch for economic

reasons.

11.8. Раскройте скобки, употребляя глаголы в Present, Past или Future Simple страдательного залога:

1.Most species (to represent) by millions of individual plants.

2.Farther to the south the forests (to dominate) by such trees as oak, hickory, beech and maple.

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3.The Chile pine (to export) to Europe and became popular in Victorian England, where it (to nickname) the monkey puzzle tree.

4.The dominant species (to surround) typically by a host of other tree, shrub and herb species that offer stiff competition.

5.Dutch elm disease (to carry) from tree to tree by elm bark beetles.

6.The management and land use plan for the area (to send out) for comments in a year.

7.Several conservation areas, wilderness areas and other sites (to cover) by a new protection programme in the near future.

8.The old-growth forests of Finland (to protect) through a national process undertaken between 1991-1996.

9.The moors of northern Scotland (to create) by fire, mostly started by man to remove natural forest.

10.More than 6% of the total area of forest land (to protect) strictly.

11.9. Раскройте скобки, употребляя глаголы в Passive Infinitive. Переведите полученные предложения:

Образец: During the life of this new forest further diversity can (to introduce) by thinning. – During the life of this new forest further diversity can be introduced by thinning.

1.Austria may (to divide) into seven forest regions, each of them may (to subdivide) into two to four altitudinal zones.

2.When a road is cut through the forest, different layers of soil can

(to see).

3.Special attention should (to pay) to the protection afforded by the forest against avalanches, mountain torrents and landslides.

4.In China, which was not extensively glaciated, almost all types of the world's temperate trees can (to find).

5.Some diversity can (to create) at the afforestation stage by introducing a range of tree and shrub species and leaving part of the area unplanted.

6.About 2,500 species of deciduous trees can (to find) in an area that extends as far south as Florida.

7.Nuts and acorns may (to carry) away from the parent tree by birds and small animals which feed upon them.

8.Special attention must (to give) to local groups whose livelihood depends heavily on the collection, processing and sale of forest products.

9.Forests can not (to isolate) from the dynamics of land use development and environmental considerations.

10.In developing countries, production of fuelwood, construction ma-

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terials, and materials for small-scale enterprises may be equally important and must (to provide) for.

11.10. Ответьте на вопросы по тексту (упр. 11.2):

1.What part of land is forested worldwide, in the US, in Oregon and Washington?

2.Do the forests in the Rocky mountains and to the west and east of the Mississippi yield many benefits?

3.Why are the forested lands important for water supply?

4.What advantages do wood products have in comparison with products made from non-wood resources?

5.Why are forests considered to be a major component in Earth's life support system?

6.What has made the search for forestry sustainability more impera-

tive?

7.What are global human impacts on forests?

8.How may the term "sustainability" be defined?

9.Do all forest land owners or managers have the same management objectives?

10.Who owns the majority of the most productive forest land in the

USA?

11.11. Укажите, являются ли данные утверждения истинными или ложными в соответствии с содержанием текста (упр. 11.2):

1.Extensive forest cover in the US is primarily found in the Rocky mountains and to the west and east of the Mississippi.

2.The forested lands offer extremely high-quality water.

3.Wood products are derived from non-wood resources.

4.More than 40 percent of terrestrial carbon stores are found in for-

ests.

5.All people value forests in the same way.

6.Population growth, lifestyle choices, increasing demand, and human conflict have made the search for sustainability more imperative.

7.Much of the pressure placed on the forest resources is the result of an ever-growing population.

8.With population growth we will have to produce more products from a smaller and smaller resource base.

9.Industrial wood use has decreased 50 percent since 1960 in the whole world.

10.Industry lands in Oregon produce less timber than public forests.

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11.12. Расположите пункты плана в логической последовательности на основании содержания текста (упр. 11.2):

1.Reasons for sustainable forest management

2.Problems caused by mixed forest ownership

3.Benefits offered by forests in the US

11.13. Пользуясь планом, полученным в упр. 11.12, подготовьте краткий пересказ текста (упр. 11.2).

11. 14. Подготовьте диалог на предложенную тему:

Your friend has been to the USA as a participant of a Student Exchange Programme. He (she) has spent most of the time in Oregon and learnt much about the forests in that part of the country. Ask him (her) some questions about the forest cover and forestry-related advances in the US. Compare the forest resources in the US and in Russia. Discuss the forestry problems of Oregon and those of the region you live in.

11. 15. Обсудите в группах:

Foreseeing results

Oil extraction is one of the most profitable industries. Countries that have natural resources of oil are among the richest in the world. Their wealth comes from selling it to other countries. But alongside with benefits, oil industry does a lot of harm to the environment. Soil erosion, water pollution, extinction of plant and animal species are only a few examples. About 3-4 million tons of oil and oil products get annually into the World Ocean.

Imagine that huge resources of oil have been discovered in your area. Can you think of all the implications of such an event? Will it be an advantage or disadvantage for the area?

Read the arguments given below. Think of some more which are important in your opinion.

Discuss the problem in groups of 3-4 students. Present the results of your discussion to the whole class.

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UNIT 12

12.1. Прочитайте интернациональные слова и определите их значение:

resolution, era, productivity, harmonize, balance, criticism, indicator, expert, limit, associate, intellectual, certification, decade

12.2. Прочитайте и переведите текст.

Sustainability of Forestry in Finland

What forestry sustainability exactly entails has changed with time according to the respective values of each era. In the resolution passed at the 1993 Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe it was stated that sustainable forestry means the management of forests and forest land in such a way that their diversity, productivity, ability to re-

generate, and vitality are safeguarded.

In practice, this sort of sustainable forestry should mean that the opportunities enjoyed by citizens for ecological, economic and social activities at the local level do not destroy or cause damage to other ecosystems. The different values associated

with the forest must be harmonized to pro- UNCED duce an overall balance.

In a country like Finland, which literally lives off its forests, the sustainability of forestry is of the utmost importance. Only the growth, or increment, of the

Finnish forests has been harvested, the capital being left untouched. With increasing global concern for the environment during the 1980s, the setting of purely economic objectives for the forest came in for criticism in most countries, including Finland. In place of forest management heavily biased towards timber production, there was a call for a more balanced and comprehensive kind of forest ecosystem management based on biodiversity and ecological sustainability. Such demands were seen by Finnish forestry as challenges for improvement which a traditional forestry country also had the intellectual readiness to satisfy.

During the next decade, the starting point for the new ecological objectives in Finland's forest policy have been international agreements, particu-

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larly the resolutions passed by the UNCED conference in Rio de Janeiro and by the subsequent Ministerial Conferences held at Helsinki and also in other countries. These have been adapted to Finland's circumstances in the new forest management guidelines which are also based on the results of forest and environmental research.

During the so-called Helsinki Process which has followed the Helsinki conference, Finland has drafted a national agreement on the criteria and indicators of sustainable forestry. The criteria and indicators are a public tool used for following up the implementation and application of the resolutions passed at the ministerial conference on the protection of European forests. All the most important organizations and interest groups connected with forestry and nature conservation have participated in this work. Finnish experts supplemented the pan-European list of indicators drafted earlier to make it compatible with Finland's conditions while, however, keeping closely within the limits of the European criteria. In the end, 160 indicators were specified, each of which were associated with six criteria: the maintenance of forest reserves, forest health and vitality, wood production sustainability, the protection of forest land and waterways, and socio-economic sustainability. The list of quantitative indicators was supplemented by descriptive indicators embodying four main elements of forest policy: legislative control, institutional arrangements, economic control, and intellectual readiness.

The applicability of the criteria and indicators in Finland was tested at a regional level for the first time in the world. At the same time, information was generated for forest certification scheme development purposes.

12.3. Запомните слова и выражения:

6 UNCED – United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

12.4. Переведите словосочетания, опираясь на содержание тек-

ста (упр. 12.2):

forest ecosystem management, forest management guidelines, wood production sustainability, forest certification scheme development purposes

12.5. Пользуясь текстом (упр. 12.2), подберите термины к следующим определениям:

1.The way of forest management providing forest diversity, productivity, regeneration ability and vitality

2.Growth of trees

3.The process of producing timber

4.Existence of a vast number of different biological species

5.Environmental studies and experiments

6.Introduction and use of something new

7.Care for forest reserves and their support

12.6. Заполните пропуски в предложениях, пользуясь информацией текста (упр. 12.2):

1. In 1993 the resolution was … at the Ministerial Conference on the

Protection of Forests in Europe, stating the concept of sustainable forestry.

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2.One of the main sustainable forestry requirements is that forests must be able to ….

3.Any kind of human activity must not … or cause … to other eco-

systems.

4.In the 1980s the use of forests for purely economic … came in for criticism in most countries.

5.Before that period forest management had been biased towards … .

6.New forest management guidelines based on the data of forest and environmental … were developed.

7.A national … on the criteria and indicators of such forestry was … during the Helsinki Process.

8.All the most important organizations and interest groups have … in the … and … of the resolutions passed.

9.The pan-European … of indicators was … by Finnish experts.

10.160 indicators were …; they may be divided into two groups: … indicators associated with six criteria and … ones embodying four main elements of forest policy.

12.7. Измените предложения, используя Progressive Passive:

Образец: Human civilization is rapidly changing the world's forest and natural resources. – The world's forest and natural resources are being rapidly changed by human civilization.

1.They are developing the plantations into forests with a wide variety of habitats.

2.The farmers are producing the maximum amount of commercially useful timber now.

3.Together with the world of wild nature people are losing their understanding, their awareness of this nature.

4.The fungus is producing a threadlike white strand.

5.They are plowing and planting this range with wheat.

6.A number of forest stakeholders were working at the environmental programme for forestry.

7.Throughout the XXth century, foresters in northern Scotland were creating new plantations which were mostly of non-native species.

8.They were felling the area all day yesterday according to the schedule.

9.The foresters were searching through the stands of wild trees to find a superior variety and to do some plant breeding.

10.At that time people were treating natural resources as if they were business ventures.

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12.8. Раскройте скобки, употребляя глаголы в Present или Past Progressive страдательного залога:

1.A careful study of the root system of a rye plant (to carry out) in the greenhouse at present.

2.The criteria for valuable old-growth forests (to define) by researchers of Finnish Environment Institute when a number of other enterprises joined the national programmes.

3.Areas of natural forest (to create) now from the semi-natural areas of broadleaved and Scots pine woods which have survived.

4.The Malahvia forest in Finland (to protect) at the moment as a part of the European Natura 2000 network.

5.Old-growth forests (to cut down) intensively in the northern part of the country when a new Forest Code came into force.

6.At the moment the forest (to manage) just for enhanced productivity of wood.

7.In the Southeast plantations pine varieties vulnerable to rust fungus (to replace) by specially selected rust-resistant varieties.

8.Birch forests (to grow) by the forestry company for commercial use from 1960 till 1995.

12.9. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на to be to и to have to в сочетании с глаголами в страдательном залоге:

1.Forest resources in the Russian Federation are to be used in compliance with a number of basic international principles.

2.If the insistent human demands for multiple use are to be met, much of the wild forest must yield to engineering simplicity.

3.Forest research has to be linked to research on social, economic and ecological issues to achieve a holistic understanding of the forest role in society.

4.Specialist units focusing on particular aspects of the forest research are to be established within each research centre.

5.The results obtained from this type of research have to be put into

practice.

6.The forest management unit has to be seen and managed in the context of the broader landscape.

7.A tree farm whose crop is to be used in the manufacture of highquality paper can be provided with seedlings of specially bred trees.

8.With 50-year growing cycles, tomorrow's commercially useful softwoods have to be placed in the ground and stretching for sunlight today.

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12.10. Ответьте на вопросы по тексту (упр. 12.2):

1.What does the term "sustainable forestry" mean?

2.Why is the sustainability of forestry of the utmost importance in

Finland?

3.Which part of the Finnish forests has been harvested?

4.How did the forest management in Finland change in the 1980s?

5.Did Finland's forest policy take into account international agreements afterwards?

6.How did the Finnish experts supplement the pan-European list of indicators?

7.Which criteria were the specified indicators associated with?

8.What are the four main elements of forest policy in Finland?

12.11. Ознакомьтесь с основными направлениями лесной политики в Финляндии в различные периоды:

Main Trends in Finnish Forest Policy

1950s and 1960s

Efficient increase in timber production

1970s and 1980s

Promotion of wood marketing

Reassessment of forest management practices

Development of the multiple use of forests

1990s and 2000s

Management of the entire forest ecosystem according to the Environmental Programme for Forestry

Promotion of forest nature biodiversity

Safeguarding of forest health and vitality

Principles and implementation of forest protection policy

National Forest Programme

Natura 2000 targets

Safeguarding of timber supply

I ncrease in the use of wood raw material as an answer to the challenge from competing materials

2000s and 2010s

Laying down of the framework for the harmonization of the material and non-material values of forests

Promotion of wood marketing

Favouring of the use of wood as an eco-material

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12.12.Найдите подтверждение перечисленным направлениям в тексте (упр. 12.2). Обсудите в парах.

12.13.Подготовьте краткий пересказ текста (упр. 12.2).

12.14.Обсудите в группах:

Visiting a forestry company

A group of Russian foresters and forest researchers have come to Finland to study the techniques of forest protection and management. They are on a visit to a world-famous forestry company that manages a few million ha of forested land. Divide into two groups:

Group 1: you are representatives of the Finnish Forestry Company. Group 2: you are foresters and forest researchers from Russia.

Each student: invent some information about your individual role, introduce yourself.

Students of Group 1: Make a presentation about your company, tell your Russian colleagues about the ways of forest protection and management that are used in your company.

Students of Group 2: Question your Finnish colleagues about their methods of work and current affairs in the company, ways of protecting the environment and preserving the main ecosystem types.

The whole class: Compare the state of the Finnish and Russian forests. Share the experience. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of both Finnish and Russian approaches to forest management.

UNIT 13

13.1. Прочитайте интернациональные слова и определите их значение:

federally, agency, company, manager, policy, integrate, sphere, local

13.2. Прочитайте и переведите текст.

The Transition towards Sustainability

The American public is interested in forest sustainability at multiple scales − local, community, regional, and national. The mosaic of forests in the United States is owned and managed by a mix of owners − governmental and nongovernmental. About one third of the Nation's forests are federally owned, and forest management decisions are made by a number

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of Federal agencies, including the USDA Forest Service. The balance is controlled by non-federal public agencies and nongovernmental interests, including 10 million private landowners – individuals, families, companies, tribes, and others – who share responsibility for managing the Nation's forests.

Forest owners, managers, and stakeholders in the United States have undertaken many initiatives to influence sustainability. Each of the initiatives affects each of the systems differently. Many other factors also affect the management and use of forests, including federal, state, and local laws and regulations, private property rights, and public land management policies.

Sustainable forest management is a highly integrated and interdependent concept. The environmental, economic, and social spheres exert joint, simultaneous, and inextricable influences on forests. Opportunities to shape one sphere affect the others. We need to think more about sustainable forest management in the context of linkages among the three spheres. We think certain inputs are important: population, preferences, and values in social systems; income, consumption, and trade in economic systems; and natural resource stocks and flows in environmental systems. Yet, we do not know enough about how forests function within the environmental sphere and how the three interlinked spheres function, thereby affecting or being affected by forests, especially at the national aggregate level.

13.3. Запомните слова и выражения:

7 USDA – United States Department of Agriculture

13.4. Образуйте прилагательные с помощью отрицательного префикса non- и переведите их:

federal, governmental, timber, existent, tropical, monetary, woody

13.5. Переведите словосочетания, опираясь на содержание тек-

ста (упр. 13.2):

forest management decisions, private property rights, public land management policies, natural resource stocks and flows

13.6. Подберите к словам (а) синонимы (b):

13.7. Объясните значение следующих понятий:

owner, balance, stakeholder, concept, linkage, input, preference, value, level

13.8. Измените предложения, используя Perfect Passive:

Образец: They have transplanted the radiata pine, which is native to Southern California, to South Africa, New Zealand, Australia and Chile. –

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The radiata pine, which is native to Southern California, has been transplanted to South Africa, New Zealand, Australia and Chile.

1.Recently they have recognized one potentially serious threat to the forests of Europe and North America – air pollution.

2.Silviculturists have achieved enough precision to develop particular strains of trees for special purposes.

3.The international conventions have committed the ecosystem biodiversity protection in Finland to the country itself.

4.Fire had altered the environment and directly or indirectly had affected the plants growing there.

5.Researchers had found the tips of roots more than 100 feet below the soil surface before the experiment was actually started.

6.The slope and exposure of the area had greatly affected its vegeta-

tion.

7.People had used the leaves of the purple foxglove as a remedy for heart ailments for centuries.

8.The foresters will have increased the tree cover from 3% in 1960 to 13% by 2020.

9.Acid rain will have left hundreds of forest lakes virtually lifeless by the time we can stop its damaging affect.

10.The organizations from the forest and environmental sectors will have carried out a survey of the forest by the end of the next year.

13.9. Раскройте скобки, употребляя глаголы в Present, Past или Future Perfect страдательного залога:

1.The Malahvia forest (to protect) as a part of the European Natura 2000 network since the 1990s.

2.Much new and valuable information (to receive) before the protection process was started.

3.Nature conservation areas (to establish) in Finland since the 1930s.

4.Various national programmes (to initiate) by the end of 2015 to protect the main ecosystem types.

5.Many infected trees (to save) by an injection of the harmless fungus into their trunks before the disease damages them completely.

6.A highly controversial product of sulfur dioxide emission is acid rain – precipitation that (to make) abnormally acid by chemical reaction with airborne pollutants.

7.In some trees the trunk may be hollow, it means that the heartwood (to decay) by fungi or eaten by insects long before you found it out.

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8.Regional and even global changes of climate (to cause) by man's activities on earth.

9.The results of the last large-scale inventory (to make) available by the beginning of the next year.

10.Some plants that (to use) in folk remedies have turned out to be sources of important modern medicines.

11.By the beginning of the XIXth century a forest of fast-growing, versatile conifers (to plant) in Germany.

13.10. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на значение слов that и those:

1.Give me that fruit.

2.Those plants grow only in this area.

3.Scientists think that many new medicines might be developed from plants.

4.Atropine, a medicine that is made from plants, has more than 50

uses.

5.The plant that atropine is derived from, belladonna, gets its name from its dilating affect.

6.In contrast to the evergreen rainforests of the tropics are those forests in tropical regions which experience a periodic dry season.

7.If plants are to be grouped or classified intelligently, it would seem desirable to arrange them so as to bring together those most closely related.

8.A problem posed by the small-tree forest is that its wood is less desirable for use as lumber than that from large trees.

9.Light seeds, like those of an elm, may be borne long distances by the wind.

10.Winds and animals import other kinds of seeds, including those of beech, oak, cherry, hickory and sugar maple.

11.Until 1630 it had been generally accepted that trees drew their nourishment from the soil in which they were rooted.

12.Only after many years of painstaking study researchers learnt that trees nourish themselves by means of a complex chain of chemical reactions and physical processes.

13.Cells formed on the inside of the cambium layer become xylem, and those formed on the outside of the cambium become phloem.

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13.11. Ответьте на вопросы по тексту (упр. 13.2):

1.Is the American public interested in forest sustainability?

2.What does the phrase "is owned and managed by a mix of owners" mean?

3.Who controls the balance in managing the Nation's forests?

4.What factors affect the management and use of forests in the United States?

5.What kind of influence do the environmental, economic and social spheres exert on forests?

13.12. Заполните таблицу:

Sustainable Forest Management in US requires certain inputs.

13.13.Пользуясь таблицей (упр. 13.12), обсудите в парах параметры, необходимые для устойчивого ведения лесного хозяйства.

13.14.Составьте план текста (упр. 13.2), озаглавив каждый аб-

зац.

13.15.Пользуясь планом, полученным в упр. 13.14, подготовьте краткий пересказ текста (упр. 13.2).

13.16.Найдите необходимую информацию и подготовьте минидоклад на одну из предложенных тем:

Diversity of forest ownership in the US

The concept of sustainable forest management

13.17. Обсудите в группах:

Publicity сampaign

A publicity campaign is a series of coordinated events or operations designed to bring about a particular result, especially a social or political