Токарева_English for Foresters

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1. Read the text and make up a list of FAO's activities that contribute to the conservation of forest genetic resources.

Genetic variation – at the level of species, populations, individuals and genes – is an important part of biological diversity, since it is the basis of evolution and the adaptation of species to changes in the environment. Variation is also essential for selection and breeding to meet present and future human needs.

The term "forest genetic resources" refers to the actual or potential value of the hereditary variation contained in forest trees and shrubs. The field of forest genetic resources is undergoing significant changes. Traditionally concerned with technical issues of genetic conservation, tree improvement and seed supply, its scope is expanding to in-clude scientific advances in

bio-technology and legal developments concerning access rights to genetic resources, which bring new possibilities and challenges. The field is driven not only by the forest sector, but also increa-singly by the environmental sector and by developments in crop plant genetic resources.

Since most of the forest genetic resources world-wide are found in natural, unmanaged forests, sustainable forest management practices have a direct influence on forest tree genetic diversity (figure 5.16). Similarly, there is an urgent need to take genetic considerations into account in biological diversity conservation and the environmental agenda.

In this rapidly changing environment, FAO provides technical support to member countries' national institutes in the conservation, management and sustainable use of forest genetic resources. The focus is on the transfer of factual information and up-to-date technology, through a wide range of communication tools and publications and through networking and twin-

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ning mechanisms.

Exploration, collection and evaluation of forest genetic resources.

FAO supports the exploration, conservation and better use of forest tree genetic variation, focusing on socio-economically important species for the dry and humid tropics. The great number of tree and shrub species, largely wild and undomesticated, makes it necessary to focus on certain species. Lists of priority species, by ecoregion, are continuously drawn up and updated. At the global level, activities have concentrated on Azadirachta indica (neem) and Acacia and Prosopis species, with increasing attention to native species. New biotechnological tools now provide additional ways to investigate and describe the genetic characteristics of forest trees, yielding information to support their conservation and breeding. FAO helps review developments in biotechnology from a global perspective.

Conservation and management of genetic resources. To use and to conserve forest genetic resources at the same time is a complex challenge. It is possible to conserve an ecosystem and still loose particular species, or to conserve a species and loose genetically distinct populations, genes or gene complexes that might be of future value. In collaboration with national and international partners, FAO actively contributes to elaborating forest genetic resources conservation methodologies through the evaluation of in situ (onsite) and ex situ (off-site) conservation stands of native or introduced species. FAO is collaborating with the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) and the Danida Forest Seed Centre (DFSC), Denmark on a series of technical guidelines on forest genetic resources conservation. FAO regularly assists the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity by providing information and documenting the status of and trends in forest biological diversity.

Forest reproductive materials. In forestry and agroforestry, seed and other reproductive materials of appropriate quantity and quality are obtained through the selection of adapted species and provenances. FAO has established a new Web site on forest reproductive materials to provide basic information about how to choose, procure and handle appropriate planting material, including regulations involved in moving seeds and germplasm. The site also presents a number of emerging issues, such as genetic modification and its application to forest trees. FAO collects global statistics on forest seed supply and demand, and it has also contributed to several international seed collection and exchange initiatives for the benefit of national institutions.

The issue of transgenic trees is also being addressed in the wider context of biosecurity (bioprotection) in forestry, which also covers issues pertain-

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ing to alien invasive species and genotypes, as well as forest protection. In partnership with IPGRI, technical guidelines for the safe movement of forest germplasm are being published.

FAO closely follows national and international developments regarding rights of access and benefit sharing, and raises awareness about the legal implications of property rights and the preparation of material transfer agreements in the forest sector.

Assessment of forest genetic resources. To assist countries in identifying their main issues and priorities in forest genetic resources, FAO supports the preparation of status assessment and action plans for forest genetic resources at the national and regional levels, through ecoregional workshops convened in collaboration with international, regional and national organizations. Updated data on species and institutions are compiled in the FAO World-Wide Information System on Forest Genetic Resources (REFORGEN). This effort will form the basis of a global evaluation of forest genetic diversity.

The work of FAO is supported by a Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources which meets regularly to report on the latest developments. The panel updates lists of priority tree species, with recommended actions, by region.

In addition, FAO regularly disseminates information to member countries and relevant national institutions about developments related to emerging issues, including the applications of modern biotechnologies, biosecurity management and biological diversity considerations.

2. Read the text again. Speak about the importance of conservation, management and sustainable use of forest genetic resources.

Forests and Fire

1.Before reading the text think of possible causes and consequences of wildfires.

2.Read the text and find the statements to prove that forest fires may be important for maintaining ecosystems health.

Fire has been a major influence on the development and management of many of the world's forests. Some forest ecosystems have evolved in response to frequent fires from natural as well as human causes, but most others are negatively affected by wildfire. Every year millions of hectares of

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the world's forests are consumed by fire (figure 5.17), which results in enormous economic losses because of destroyed timber, burnt housing, degraded real estate, high costs of fire suppression, damage to environmental, recreational and amenity values and loss of human and animal life.

Most wildfires in forests and woodlands today are caused by humans as a result of the misuse of fire for conversion of forests to agricultural lands, maintenance of grazing lands, extraction of non-wood forest products, hunting, and clearing of land for mining, industrial development or resettlement. Forest fires may also result from personal or ownership conflicts.

Although fire has been the primary agent of forest degradation, as a natural process it serves an important function in maintaining the health of certain ecosystems. The conventional view of fire as a destructive agent requiring immediate suppression has given way to the view that fire can and should be used to meet land management goals under given ecological conditions.

In its role as a neutral forum, FAO brings countries together to discuss technical and policy issues related to mediumto long-term fire management

plans. FAO collaborates with other organizations and bodies within and outside the United Nations system, including the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), which coordinate emergency inputs of international agencies or donors during crisis situations. FAO also works closely with many governmental and non-governmental agencies, organizations and mechanisms.

Following a meeting on public policies affecting forest fires in 1998, FAO in collaboration with ITTO organized an Expert Meeting on Forest Fires in March 2001, which recommended that a review be made of international forest fire agreements. This ongoing assessment includes the collection and regular updating of related information; review of relevant national legislation; and the preparation of guidelines and checklists for the develop-

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ment of new international agreements. A glossary of forest fire terminology is also being revised.

FAO has long been involved in data collection and analysis and is currently collaborating with ECE, GFMC and a number of other agencies on fire databases. FAO's Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 (FRA 2000) included a special study on forest fires which summarizes regional fire management information as provided by FAO member countries. FAO has further coordinated activities in a forest fire research network established within the framework of the Committee on Mediterranean Forestry Questions – Silva Mediterranea, a committee of FAO's African Forestry and Wildlife Commission (AFWC), European Forestry Commission (EFC) and Near East Forestry Commission (NEFC). Over the past decades, FAO has organized a series of meetings and workshops with the support of CIHEAM.

The Forestry Department and the Remote Sensing Centre of FAO's Sustainable Development Department collaborate with the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission at Ispra, Italy on the use of satellite remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) to evaluate the incidence and extent of forest fires.

Over the past 20 years, FAO has produced more than 100 reports on forest fires through the implementation of more than 60 field projects in some 40 countries, supported by the FAO Technical Cooperation Programme, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and a number of bilateral donors. In the past ten years case studies on forest fire management have been prepared under several major field projects, for China, Cuba, Cyprus, Ethiopia, Honduras, India, Indonesia, the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Mongolia, Sierra Leone and Turkey. Pipeline projects concern the Syrian Arab Republic and Bulgaria.

In these projects, the need for participatory approaches to forest management is stressed, including the involvement of local people in the planning and execution of programmes; in the prevention, detection and control of wildfires; and in the sound management of the use of fire as a tool in planned land clearing and in the management of grazing lands. Each project has a strong country capacity-building component.

The Working Group on Wildland Fire of the Inter-Agency Task Force for Disaster Reduction, together with GFMC, recently launched a series of regional wildland fire networks. These networks provide technical support and enhance forest management capabilities in participating countries, support the exchange and dissemination of information, provide countries with information about identified gaps in legislation, policy and planning, and

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provide information for general fire awareness education. The first of these networks to be established was Afrifirenet, which actively engages subSaharan African countries and non-governmental organizations in policy, management and technology dialogue. Other networks have been launched for Southeast Asia, North America, the Baltic countries, South and Central America, Oceania, Europe (in a combined fire/hazard/relief effort), the Balkan countries and Central Asia.

3. Speak of FAO's role in wildfire management.

National Forest Programmes

1. Read the text and answer the questions:

1.Why are national forest programmes necessary?

2.What basic principles are national forest programmes guided by? The term "National forest programmes" designates the wide range of

approaches to the process of planning, programming and implementing forest activities in a country, to be applied at national and subnational levels, based on a common set of guiding principles. The purpose of national forest programmes is to establish a workable social and political framework for the conservation, management and sustainable development of all types of forests, which in turn will increase the effectiveness and efficiency of public and private operational and funding commitments. National forest programmes require a broad intersectoral approach at all stages, including the formulation of policies, strategies and courses of action, as well as their implementation, monitoring and evaluation. They should be developed in the context of each country's socio-economic, cultural, political and environmental situation, and then should be integrated into wider programmes for sustainable land use. The activities of other sectors, such as agriculture, energy and industrial development, should also be taken into account.

National forest programmes are guided by basic principles endorsed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF) and reaffirmed by the United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF). These principles state the need for:

appropriate participatory mechanisms to involve all interested par-

ties;

decentralization, where applicable, and empowerment of regional and local government structures;

recognition and respect for traditional and customary rights of indigenous groups, local communities, forest dwellers and forest owners;

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secure land tenure arrangements;

establishment of effective coordination mechanisms and conflictresolution schemes.

The need for a flexible approach to national forest programmes has been emphasized, since various countries prefer to use means that are different from formally established plans or programmes to achieve their political forestry objectives.

The tangible results of these processes include new forest policies and improved legislation, institutional reforms, redefinition of the role of the State in forestry development, decentralization of forest management responsibilities, transfer of power to communities and local groups, greater transparency and participation in decision-making processes, and coordination and harmonization of actions within coherent, holistic and intersectoral strategic frameworks.

In 2002, the National Forest Programme Facility, hosted by FAO, was created as an innovative partnership to support the implementation of national forest programmes in developing countries through capacity development and information sharing. The Facility places particular emphasis on addressing poverty alleviation and governance issues through empowerment of civil society and enhanced participation of a broad range of stakeholders. It seeks to improve enabling conditions for sustainable forest management, rather than funding physical assets.

Over a period of five years, the Facility aims to facilitate the development and implementation of national forest programme processes in some 60 member countries, and to strengthen global knowledge sharing on forestry. The estimated costs for the five-year period are around US $32 million.

As regards direct country-level support, the Facility supports workshops, fora and in-service training; policy analysis and specific studies; and country-level systems of information and knowledge management. In 2002, the Facility was helping eight countries (three in Africa, four in Asia and one in Latin America) and a Central American NGO, and ten other countries were preparing requests for Facility support.

2. Read the text again and prove that the National Forest Programme Facility supports the implementation of national forest programme processes in different countries.

Pest Management in Forestry

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1.Before reading the text think of the importance of pest management in forestry.

2.Read the text and say if you are right or wrong.

Insects and diseases are integral components of forest dynamics. However, under certain conditions they have adverse effects on many aspects of forests such as tree growth and survival, yield and quality of wood and nonwood products, wildlife habitat, recreation and scenic and cultural value.

The importance of pests and their negative impacts on forests have been for the most part understated. Pest outbreaks can contribute either directly or indirectly to economic and environmental losses. They may compromise national economies and, especially in some developing countries and countries with economies in transition, these problems can threaten local economic stability, livelihoods and food security. Invasive plant species can also cause damage through competition and prevention of regeneration of native tree species, posing new challenges especially to the in situ conservation of forest biological diversity.

Insects and diseases influence the health of natural and planted forests, trees outside forests and other wooded lands. Globally, these ecosystems are under increasing threat, as the periods between sequential outbreaks are rapidly decreasing because of a range of factors including climate change and lack of proper forest and plantation management. Yet forest pest management practices are frequently considered only in response to pest outbreaks and rely on emergency tactics, rather than prevention.

Movement of insects and diseases has been facilitated by increased long -range air travel and reduced travel time, increased international trade of agricultural and forest products, and the exchange of plant material. Introduced forest pests can be extremely destructive, as seen in recent years in both developed and developing countries.

Pest management strategies in forest protection. International and national quarantine legislation is the first line of defense in forest protection. The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC), approved in 1951 and deposited with FAO, is a multilateral treaty for cooperation in plant protection. The IPPC was amended in 1979 and again in 1997. As of November 2002, 120 countries were contracting parties to the convention. More than 15 international standards for phytosanitary measures have been endorsed through this system and are now legally binding standards.

Despite active quarantine measures and information exchange, pests still continue to move between and within countries. Under suitable climatic

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conditions and in the absence of indigenous natural enemies, they are quick to establish. Health monitoring can help ensure that pest activity is discovered before extensive damage occurs and can provide data to support decisions on appropriate tactics of control once a problem has been detected.

The use of integrated pest management (IPM) implies that pest management programmes are designed as an integral part of forest management, including both prevention and control strategies. Emphasis is placed on understanding the underlying causes of outbreaks, on pest monitoring, on the use of selection and tree breeding for resistance and on the maintenance or gradual improvement of the overall health of forests, rather than on controlling pests once they have become a problem.

FAO and IPM in forestry. Activities in the FAO forest protection programme aim to assist, advise and support countries and national institutes to safeguard the health and vitality of forests, forest ecosystems and trees outside forests, with special reference to insects, diseases and other harmful biotic and abiotic agents. FAO provides advice on preventive measures and IPM, and on recommended action to minimize risks of transboundary transfer.

Direct technical assistance to countries is provided predominantly through FAO's Technical Cooperation Programme (TCP), in response to requests from governments related to specific pest problems affecting forests and food security. All projects offer more than emergency assistance, helping countries also to develop IPM strategies to prevent further outbreaks in the medium and long term.

Through TCP projects and field visits, assistance in the development of IPM strategies and training has been provided to a number of countries. Recent examples include:

IPM and storage of chestnuts in China (in 2000-2001);

protection of the forest with particular emphasis on the new pest Cephalcia tannourinensis, a defoliating woodwasp, infesting Lebanon cedars (2001-2002);

protection of spruce stands in the Slovak Republic (2000-2002);

strengthening national capacity for control of Pterocarpus indicus wilt disease and forest protection in Seychelles (2001-2003);

development of a regional strategy for protection and management of forests in Central America (2002-2004);

protection of pine forest from the pine processionary moth in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (2002-2004).

Technical cooperation is offered through the organization of international workshops and technical visits to provide advice on pest problems, such

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as the effects of dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium oxycedri) on Juniperus excelsa in Pakistan (figure 5.18), the decline of Acacia nilotica in riverine forests in the Sudan, and Dalbergia dieback in south Asia.

At the request of member countries, and in collaboration with the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), three technical guides have been prepared which provide information on pests of Eucalyptus spp., Pinus spp. and Acacia spp. that can be spread through the international and domestic trade of seeds and

tissue.

FAO also supports cooperation among countries in the management of forest pests of regional significance through the development of forest pest management and information networks.

Global information system. FAO, with the cooperation of experts from member countries, is compiling data for a global information system on insect pest and disease outbreaks and their impacts on natural and planted forests, trees outside forests and other wooded lands. The system is intended to help increase awareness of the severe problems related to forest insect pests and diseases worldwide, and to provide with up-to-date baseline information to support policyand decision-making, forest management planning and field-level operations. It will contain both qualitative and quantitative information about forest health at the country level (e.g., quantitative losses in forest area and products, including economic and environmental damage, and qualitative estimates of damage to trees), with special emphasis on developing countries, countries with economies in transition and rapidly industrializing countries. The information system will be made widely available through both electronic and printed means. The target audience includes national forest services, research and academic institutions and technical officers dealing with forestry and pest management.

3. Read the text again and speak of the use of IPM in forestry.

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Planted Forests

1. Read the text and say how plantation forests may help reduce logging pressure on natural forests.

In the past FAO has broadly defined plantation forests (figure 5.19) as forest stands established by planting or seeding in the process of afforestation or reforestation. It has not always been possible to distinguish forest plantations from natural forests in those countries where natural species were grown in long-rotation, mixed-species, mixed-age plantings in temperate and boreal regions. The distinction between natural forests and plantation forests was more clear if plantings were intensively managed stands of single species (indigenous or introduced) with uniform planting densities, even age classes and shorter rotation, as are often found in tropical and subtropical regions.

There is an increasing need to recognize semi-natural forests which are neither strictly natural forests with minimal management nor plantation forests with intensive management, but which provide critical wood and nonwood forest product supplies and valuable social, cultural, environmental and economic values. Semi-natural forests may be selectively harvested for wood and non-wood forest products and may be managed with enrichment planting and seeding or with silvicultural treatments to enhance growth and yield. The wider "planted forest" classification can potentially include such

semi-natural forests which have been reported as natural forests (particularly in Europe and North America) in previous FAO forest resources assessments, including the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 (FRA 2000). The intensity of management can help countries determine whether their seminatural forests qualify as a type of planted forest.

Status of planted forest resources.

Figure 5.19. Plantation forest According to FRA 2000, the area of plantation forests was 187 million

hectares, a significant increase over the 1995 estimate of 124 million hectares. Asia accounted for 62 per cent. The largest plantation forest resources were found in China (24 per cent) and India (18 per cent). Annual new

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planting was 4.5 million hectares globally, with Asia and South America accounting for 91 per cent. The predominant genera were Pinus (20 per cent) and Eucalyptus (10 per cent); however, the species groups varied markedly among geographic regions. Globally, 48 per cent of the plantation forest estate was for industrial use, 26 per cent was for non-industrial use (fuelwood, soil and water conservation) and 26 per cent was not specified.

Although FRA 2000 indicated that plantation forests accounted for less than 5 per cent of global forest cover, they accounted for at least 22 per cent of global roundwood supplies to industry. In the future, planted forests will have an increasing role in wood and non-wood forest products supply as natural forest areas available for this purpose decrease owing to deforestation or designation for conservation or other uses.

FRA 2000 reviewed interactions between wood supply from plantation forests and wood harvested from natural forests on the one hand, and deforestation trends on the other. In several countries industrial wood production from plantation forests has significantly substituted for wood supply from natural forest resources. Plantation forests in New Zealand met 99 per cent of the country's needs for industrial roundwood in 1997; the corresponding figure for Chile was 84 per cent, for Brazil – 62 per cent and for Zambia and Zimbabwe – 50 per cent each. This substitution by plantation forests may help reduce logging pressure on natural forests in areas where unsustainable harvesting of wood is a major cause of forest degradation and where logging roads facilitate access that may lead to deforestation.

FAO activities. Reliable and consistent definitions and data are not available on planted forest resources in developed and developing countries; areas managed with mixed tree species (indigenous and introduced), including semi-natural forests; or total areas of planted forests by species, purpose, ownership, age-class distribution, intensity of management, growth, rotation, harvest yield and forest products output. The poor quality of the available information is a major impediment to policy-making in this field. FAO supports the efforts of member countries to define planted forests consistently and to provide increasingly accurate and timely data on planted forests at the regional and global levels to be used in national policymaking, in regional and global outlook studies and in a range of other studies.

In developed countries and in some countries with economies in transition, surplus or marginal agricultural land is becoming increasingly available for planted forest development; however, such land may not be suitable for the establishment of all kinds of planted forests, and owners may not be willing to commit land for the long-term investment to maturity. Land-use conflicts can occur where planted forests are developed on land perceived

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as wasteland but actually used for grazing and provision of non-wood goods and services by landless people. FAO is assisting developing countries in reviewing the role of planted forests and the factors facilitating investment in this land use.

Communities and smallholder investors, including individual farmers, grow trees in shelterbelts, home gardens and woodlots and in a diverse range of agroforestry systems to provide wood, non-wood forest products, fuelwood, fodder and shelter. Partnership agreements under various forms of contract with wood processing industries can also provide valuable sources of wood supply. Smallholder investors are producing an increasing proportion of decorative veneer species, especially teak, under such schemes. FAO, the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and collaborating partners are developing a practical partnership framework, preparing guidelines and reviewing experiences with partnership agreements in targeted countries in each region.

A key environmental consideration related to planted forests is the maintenance of the productive potential of the site. This can be promoted through the development of silvicultural techniques, reduced-impact harvesting and forest management practices that reduce soil erosion, conserve water and maintain soil fertility through subsequent rotations. Appropriate management techniques for planted forests can also help conserve or even enhance biological diversity. The protection of planted forests from fire, insects and disease is critical.

Planted forests may provide a larger range of products, provide "insurance" against unfavourable market conditions, reduce the effects and economic consequences of insect and disease attacks, harbour greater diversity of flora and fauna, contain the spread of wildfires and provide greater variety and aesthetic value in the landscape.

Particularly in Southeast Asia, wood supply difficulties have led to the utilization of woody or fibrous species that are not traditionally considered forestry species, such as rubberwood and the stems and leaves of oil and coconut palms. This trend is expected to continue, and FAO will monitor the consequences and implications.

2. Read the text again and answer the questions:

1.What is the difference between natural, semi-natural and plantation

forests?

2.How large are plantation forest resources in different countries?

3.What is a key environmental consideration related to planted for-

ests?

3.Speak of FAO activities in reviewing the role of planted forests.

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Promoting Sustainable Management of

Forests and Woodlands

1. Read the text and answer the questions:

1.Why aren't many of the world's forests properly managed?

2.Which organizations develop criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management?

3.How may model forests promote sustainable forest management?

Sustainable forest management aims to ensure that the goods and services derived from the forest meet present-day needs while at the same time securing their continued availability and contribution to long-term development. In its broadest sense, forest management encompasses the administrative, legal, technical, economic, social and environmental aspects of the conservation and use of forests. It implies various degrees of deliberate human intervention, ranging from actions aimed at safeguarding and maintaining the forest ecosystem and its functions, to favouring specific socially or economically valuable species or groups of species for the improved production of goods and services.

Many of the world's forests and woodlands, however, especially in the tropics and subtropics, are still not managed in accordance with the Forest Principles adopted at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, 1992). Many developing countries have inadequate funding and human resources for the preparation, implementation and monitoring of forest management plans, and lack mechanisms to ensure the participation and involvement of all stakeholders in forest planning and development. Where forest management plans exist, they are frequently limited to ensuring sustained production of wood, without due concern for nonwood products and services or social and environmental values. In addition, many countries lack appropriate forest legislation, regulation and incentives to promote sustainable forest management practices.

Criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management. Criteria and indicators are tools used to define, assess and monitor progress towards sustainable forest management. The term "criteria" designates the essential elements or principles against which sustainability is judged, taking into account the productive, protective and social roles of forests and forest ecosystems. Each criterion is defined by quantitative or qualitative indicators, which are measured and monitored regularly to determine the effects of forest management interventions, or non-intervention. Criteria and indica-

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tors at the national level may be used to guide countrywide policies, regulations and legislation. In addition, most criteria and indicators processes are now developing, testing and implementing criteria and indicators at the forest management unit level. Increasingly, these activities involve government agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and forest owners, including the private sector.

Identification of innovative forest management approaches and techniques. Far more attention has been focused on poor forest management, deforestation and forest degradation than on the many positive instances of improved forest management. A recent FAO initiative entitled "In Search of Excellence" aims to document specific examples of exemplary forest management that show promise for the future. These may be forests that have a long history of good management or that have implemented innovative systems of management. They include forests of varying sizes, ecotypes, management objectives and ownership structures.

The initiative was launched in 2001/2002 in Asia and the Pacific and in Central Africa. Plans are being developed to extend it to other regions.

Model and demonstration forests. Model forests are conceived as a means for developing, testing and demonstrating innovative approaches to forest management, including the use of local-level indicators to monitor progress. Model forests promote sustainable forest management at the field level, help translate national forest programmes into action and provide continuous feedback to governments for use at the policy level. The concept, initially developed in Canada, is applicable to all types of forests, ownership patterns and management objectives. The management of a model forest is guided by a voluntary partnership of all individuals, organizations, interest groups and private companies who have a stake in the sustainable management of the forest. Scarce resources are pooled and emphasis is placed on continued learning and replication through networking with other sites.

The International Model Forest Network (IMFN) was initiated in 1992. A decade later, a total of 32 model forests existed in 12 countries (Canada, the United States, Mexico, Chile, Argentina, the Russian Federation, Japan, China, Myanmar, Thailand, the Philippines and Indonesia) covering a total area of more than 14 million hectares. A number of additional countries are in the early stages of developing model forests.

2.Explain the meaning of the acronyms UNCED and IMFN.

3.Say a few words about promoting sustainable management of forests and woodlands.

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Trees outside Forests

1. Read the text and find a suitable title for each part of the text from the list below:

1.The study of trees outside forests by FRA 2000

2.General idea of trees outside forests

3.FAO contribution to promoting trees outside forests

4.Consequences of agriculture and urban expansion

5.The role of trees in sustainable development

Trees outside forests (figure 5.20) include all trees found on non-forest and non-wooded lands, i.e. trees on agricultural lands, in urban and settlement areas, along roads, in home gardens, in hedgerows, scattered in the landscape and on pasture and rangelands. Trees outside forests fulfill diverse environmental, social, cultural and economic roles and various benefits could be obtained through their wider integration in all land-use systems (rural and urban).

In the past decade, agriculture and urban expansion have occurred at the expense of forest, woodland, cropland and grassland ecosystems. The accumulated effects of these changes are reflected in serious soil degradation, desertifi-cation and loss of biodiversity, leading to food insecurity and extreme poverty in the most vulnerable areas where food production opportunities have been lost.

Tree planting and management is one of the solutions for addressing these challenges. Trees have the potential to restore degraded ecosystems, to provide food, medicines and other goods and to render environmental services (shade, protection from wind, microclimate improvement, soil fertility, prevention of soil erosion) and socio-economic benefits and values. Trees outside forests are now recognized

as a valuable tool in sustainable development and in enhancing livelihoods, as illustrated by traditional tree-based agriculture and livestock systems developed and practiced over centuries by farmers and herdsmen.

The importance of considering trees outside forests as a distinct category of forest resources was first recognized at the FAO/ECE Meeting of Experts on Global Forest Resources Assessment, held in Kotka, Finland in

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1993 (Kotka II). Since then, through continuous awareness raising and case studies, FAO has given more visibility to trees outside forests and has dispelled the idea that tree resources are important only for small-scale farmers or that they make only a limited contribution to sustainable forest resource management.

The Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 (FRA 2000) did not attempt a comprehensive global assessment of trees outside forests, nor has such an assessment ever been made. However, FRA 2000 reviewed available information on trees outside forests for specific countries or land areas and drew attention to the difficulties involved in their assessment. The study revealed a paucity of information about these resources at the national level. FAO is therefore assisting member countries in developing assessment tools and methodologies and in establishing and improving information systems and networks.

FAO is also helping to raise the profile of trees outside forests and highlight their role in sustainable livelihoods, for example through meetings such as the workshop "Enhancing the Contribution of Trees outside Forests to Sustainable Livelihoods", held in Rome in 2001. These efforts have highlighted a pressing need to develop sound approaches and technologies for promoting trees outside forests worldwide.

2. Read the text again and speak about the importance of considering trees outside forests.

Urban and peri-urban Forestry

1.Before reading the text think of the problems that may be typical of urban forestry.

2.Read the text and say if you are right or wrong.

In recent years, experts and institutions concerned with the sustainable development of cities have paid increasing attention to the potential role of tree planting in landscape structuring, beautification of the urban environment and improvement of health conditions. Brisk expansion of urban populations in developing countries is projected by 2025, and many settlers will live in poor conditions and will face food insecurity, lack of clean drinkingwater, inadequate energy for domestic use, shortage of construction material, air pollution and insanitary disposal of waste and sewage. Much of the urban expansion will be on hillsides prone to erosion or in swampy areas.

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Urban trees (figure 5.21) hold potential to protect re-servoirs from erosion and siltation, to stabilize hilly or sloping areas, to minimize air pollution through carbon sequestration and to generate income. In addition, beautification of cities through tree planting can stimulate investment, develop business and create employment.

FAO's recent work in this area has included country case studies, a spotlight on urban and peri-urban forestry and city greening at the workshop on trees outside forests in 2001 and participation at many international meetings and workshops on urban forestry.

FAO's strategy for urban and peri-urban forestry includes assistance to member countries, particularly developing countries, in establishing and managing forests and trees in and around cities, and strengthening of NorthSouth cooperation in technology transfer for urban and peri-urban forestry technology. New thrusts will aim at improved elaboration of planning and management principles and tools to conserve and develop green areas and planted forests.

Many developing countries have requested assistance in establishing plantations and managing natural forests in peri-urban areas for fuelwood production, erosion control, protection of water resources and optimization of the environmental and economic benefits of forests. A number of projects have been or are being developed in member countries, for example:

implementation of an urban and peri-urban forestry project for tree planting and forest management in three provinces of Angola;

preparation and development of urban and peri-urban forestry projects in Cameroon, Mali, Senegal, the Sudan, Tunisia and Uruguay;

preparation of a plan for national tree planting and development of peri-urban forestry using sewage water resources in Egypt.

FAO has also provided assistance through training and study tours for technicians in government and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) regarding urban and peri-urban issues.

3. Read the text again and speak about the main trends of FAO's strategy for urban and peri-urban forestry.

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