@IRBIS_10_NVEV_Oliynuk_Angliyska_mova_copy

Biochemistry and Biotechnology

Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes that take place in all living things. Biochemists conduct research into the molecules that occur in the cells of animals, plants, and other organisms. Many common elements, such as hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, are found in chemical compounds in living things. Biochemists try to determine the structures of such compounds and to establish their biological functions.

All organisms contain compounds called carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins. The molecules of these compounds help form the various structures in a cell and enable it to function properly. Some inorganic substances, such as minerals and water, also play a part in a cell's growth and maintenance.

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Biochemical research covers a variety of processes. For example, biochemists conduct studies of large protein molecules called enzymes, which speed up chemical reactions in living matter. The enzymes of the human body promote chemical changes necessary for all functions, such as digestion and muscle contraction. Biochemists identify the enzyme molecules produced by cells and investigate the mechanism by which these molecules speed up chemical reactions.

Other biochemical research involves chemical substances that help regulate metabolism, the process by which organisms use enzymes to transform food into energy and new tissue. Biochemists also study the hormones produced by various parts of an organism. Hormones are chemical substances that affect many body functions. Researchers hope to learn how these "chemical messengers" help regulate metabolism.

Biochemists seek to determine the precise role of a nucleic acid called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Through the study of DNA, biochemistry has helped explain the molecular basis of the laws of genetics. Molecules of DNA are present in threadlike structures called chromosomes in the cell. These molecules carry hereditary data from one generation of cells to the next. Thus, organisms pass hereditary traits on to their offspring. Biochemists have used knowledge of DNA in genetic engineering to create new protein molecules and to begin to design new types of organisms.

Other biochemical research has contributed to the understanding of photosynthesis. It has answered many questions about this complex process, in which green plants convert the radiant energy of the sun into the chemical energy of carbohydrates.

Biochemical research has broadened knowledge in many other fields of biology, including biotechnology and medicine. It has also benefited agriculture. Farmers and agricultural researchers have used findings of biochemical research to develop crops of high quality and yield.

Investigative methods. Biochemists use a variety of scientific methods in their studies. They rely heavily on a technique called chromatography to separate and identify organic compounds. This method is especially useful for isolating amino acids, the compounds that make up proteins.

Electrophoresis is another method used to separate protein molecules for close study. It provides an effective way of analyzing the molecular structure of blood to detect a lot of genetic diseases. Electrophoresis is also used in DNA fingerprinting, a method of identifying people through analysis of their genetic material.

Biotechnology is the term for techniques of managing biological systems for human benefit. The best-known form of biotechnology is

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genetic engineering, which involves altering the genes of a living organism. Other examples of biotechnology include cell cultures (growths of animal or plant cells in the laboratory) and monoclonal antibodies (specialized protein molecules). Biotechnology has important applications in medicine, agriculture, industry, and other fields. For example, genetically altered microbes can manufacture a wide range of products, including human protein drugs, animal growth hormones, and raw materials for industrial chemicals.

However, biotechnology has generated public concern, particularly about the ethics and safety of certain uses of genetic engineering. In the United States, a number of federal agencies regulate biotechnological research and its products.

Genetic engineering is the term applied to techniques that alter the genes (hereditary material) or combination of genes in an organism. The cells of all living organisms contain genes. Genes carry chemical information that determines the organism's characteristics. By changing an organism's genes, scientists can give the organism and its descendants different traits.

For thousands of years, breeders of plants and animals have used breeding methods to produce favourable combinations of genes. These "genetic engineers" have produced most of the economically important varieties of flowers, vegetables, grains, cows, horses, dogs, and cats. Beginning in the 1970's, scientists developed ways to reintroduce individual genes into cells or into plants, animals, or other organisms. Such techniques alter the heredity of the cells or organisms.

To alter the genetic makeup of DNA, scientists use a technique called gene splicing. In this technique, a gene-sized fragment of DNA is taken from one organism and joined to a DNA molecule from another organism or from the same organism. The hybrid molecule formed is called recombinant DNA.

When recombinant DNA is mixed with specially prepared cells, a few of the cells will take up the recombinant DNA in a process called transformation. This mixture of cells is then placed on a special culture medium that allows only the "transformed" cells to grow. Each of the transformed cells with the newly added genetic information grows overnight into a colony of millions of cells. This colony represents a clone—that is, a group of genetically identical cells.

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1.From World Book "Biochemistry" by Frederick B. Rudolph, Ph.D., Professor and Chair, Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology; Executive Director, Institute of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Rice University.

2.From World Book "Biotechnology" by Thomas H. Maugh, II, Ph.D.

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14. Перекладіть наступні словосполучення без словника:

chemical processes, living things, conduct research, common elements, biological functions, protein molecules, chemical changes, Biochemists identify, chemical messengers, biochemical research, genetic engineering, chemical information, a process called transformation, hybrid molecule, uncontrollable bacteria.

15. Доповніть речення словами, взятими із тексту:

1.The study of the chemical processes that take place in all living things is called … .

2.All organisms contain … called …, lipids, …, and … .

3.Biochemists conduct studies of large protein molecules called …, which speed … chemical … in living matter.

4.Biochemists also study the … produced by various parts of an organism.

5.Through the study of DNA, biochemistry has helped explain the … basis of the laws of … .

6.… is the term for techniques of managing biological systems for human benefit.

7.The best-known form of biotechnology is …, which involves altering the genes of a living organism.

8.When recombinant DNA is mixed with specially prepared cells, a few of the cells will take up the recombinant DNA in a process called ….

16. Знайдіть продовження речень:

17.Прочитайте цей текст без словника та розкажіть англійською які трансгенні культури вирощуються у світі:

Transgenic crops are grown commercially or in field trials in over 40 countries and on 6 continents. In 2000, about 109.2 million acres (442,000 km²) were planted with transgenic crops, the principal ones being

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herbicideand insecticide-resistant soybeans, corn, cotton, and canola. Other crops grown commercially or field-tested are a sweet potato resistant to a US strain of a virus that affects one out of the more than 89 different varieties of sweet potato grown in Africa, rice with increased iron and vitamins such as golden rice, and a variety of plants able to survive extreme weather.

18.Англійською мовою дайте визначення таких термінів, як:” chromosomes”,” enzymes”, “ photosynthesis”, “ recombinant DNA”, “ transformation”, “ chromatography”, “cell cultures”, “clone”, “ electrophoresis”, “genetic engineering”.

19.Прочитайте прислів’я і назвіть їх відповідники українською мовою:

A new language – a new world.

How many languages you know, how many times you are a man. No man is born wise or learned.

A good deed is never lost.

The early bird catches the worm (черв’як). Necessіty is the mother of invention.

As bald as an eagle.

Time for fun

How To Grow Strawberries

Farmer Evans was driving his John Deere tractor along the road with a trailer load of fertilizer. Tim a little boy of eight was playing in his yard when he saw the farmer and asked, 'What've you got in your trailer?'

'Manure,' Farmer Evans replied.

'What are you going to do with it?' asked Tim.

'Put it on my strawberries,' answered the farmer.

Tim replied, 'You ought to come and eat with us, we put ice-cream on our strawberries.'

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Граматичний матеріал

Інфінітив

(Infinitive)

Інфінітив − це неособова форма дієслова, яка тільки називає дію і відповідає на запитання що робити?, що зробити? ─ to write писати; to answer відповідати.

В англійській мові інфінітив має одну просту і п’ять складних форм. Інфінітив перехідних дієслів має форми часу й стану, а неперехідних – тільки часу.

Якщо дієслово не вживається в пасивному стані або в формі Continuous, то кількість форм інфінітива відповідно менша.

Ознакою інфінітива в англійській мові є частка to. Частка not перед інфінітивом вказує на заперечну форму.

Але слід пам’ятати, що в деяких випадках інфінітив вживається без частки to:

1)після модальних дієслів (окрім дієслова ought);

2)в об’єктному інфінітивному звороті після дієслів: to see, to hear, to feel, to watch, to observe, to notice; to let, to make;

3)після виразів would rather, would sooner, had better… .

Значення і вживання форм інфінітива

I. Інфінітив у формі Indefinite вживається:

1.Якщо дія, яку він виражає, одночасна з дією дієслова-присудка речення:

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Вона не хотіла, щоб її знашли.

III.Інфінітив також вживається:

1.Після таких дієслів, як: advise, afford, agree, appear, attempt, decide, dare, forget, fail, expect, hope, manage, offer, plan, pretend, promise, refuse, seem, tend, threaten, want, etc.

e.g. He refused to answer my questions. I hope to see you again soon.

He promised not to be late.

2. В конструкції: Verb + Pro(noun) + Infinitive – в об’єктному інфінітивному звороті, де займенник вживається в об’єктному відмінку. Після дієслів: consider, believe, think, find, know, expect, suppose, want, wish, desire, like, would like, dislike, hate, intend, request, ask (просити), allow, permit, recommend, cause, force, make

(примушувати), let (веліти, дозволяти):

e.g. Mr. Lee expected them to be here at ten o’clock.

The police ordered the driver (him) to stop.

Після дієслів to make, to let, to see, to hear, to feel, to watch, to observe, to notice – частка to перед інфінітивом не вживається:

3. В суб’єктному інфінітивному звороті (що має функцію “складний підмет”), де іменник чи займенник стоїть в загальному відмінку:

а) після таких дієслів в пасивному стані, як: say, report, think, believe, expect, consider, suppose, see, hear, feel, notice, observe, watch, order,

б) після наступних дієслів в активному стані: seem, appear

(здаватися), happen, chance (траплятися), turn out, prove

(виявлятися):

e.g. They seemed not to listen to their teacher.

Здавалося, що вони не слухали свого вчителя.

в) після словосполучень to be sure, to be certain, to be likely, to be unlikely:

e. g. They are likely to meet often.

Вони, мабуть, часто зустрічатимуться.

4. В конструкції “for + noun/pronoun + infinitive” (де займенник вживається в об’єктному відмінку):

e. g. They asked for the data (them) to be published.

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Вони просили, щоб ці данні були опубліковані.

Функції інфінітива в реченні

1.Інфінітив може вживатися в реченні в ролі підмета:

e. g. To apply fertilizers is very important for growing crops in this region.

Вносити добрива (внесення добрив) – дуже важливо …

2.Інфінітив може вживатися в ролі предикатива (іменної частини складного присудка):

e. g. The point is to achieve the aim. Головне – досягти мети. 3. Інфінітив може вживатися в ролі частини дієслівного

складного присудка:

а) з модальними дієсловами: e. g. They must do it at once.

б) з дієсловами, що вживаються з інфінітивом іншого дієслова (to want, to wish, to try, to intend, to expect, to hope та ін.):

e. g. He wants to read a newspaper.

в) з дієсловами, що означають початок або продовження дії (to begin, to start, to continue та ін.):

e.g. She began to look through the journals on her speciality.

4.Інфінітив може вживатися в ролі додатка до дієслів та прикметників:

e. g. She asked me to speak loudly.

I’ll be happy to accept your invitation.

5.Інфінітив може вживатися як обставина мети:

e.g. We often use heating (in order) to increase the reaction rate.

Ми часто використовуємо нагрівання для того, щоб підвищити швидкість реакції.

6. Інфінітив також вживається як означення:

e.g. He described some phenomena to be observed there only in winter.

Він описав деякі явища, які можна спостерігати тільки взимку.

Тренувальні вправи

1.Перекладіть речення українською мовою:

1.Everyone had a wish to say something. 2. He decided to go alone.

3.We must work hard to live. 4. The question must be answered. 5. It was difficult to believe. 6. This is my bench, and you have no right to take it away from me. 7. Nothing could be done before morning.

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