NP-1k-short

Unit 4. DEMAND AND SUPPLY

TEXT A: Demand and supply TEXT B: The role of price

TEXT C: Two factors that affect labor supply and demand BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: Making an appointment

GRAMMAR: The Past Prefect Tense. The Past Perfect Continuous Tense. Past Tenses Review.

A system is in equilibrium when the forces constituting it are arranged in such a way as to compensate each other, like the two weights pulling at the arms of a pair of scales.

Rudolf Arnheim (1904 – 2007), German-born author, psychologist.

LEAD-IN

1.How different are expectations of sellers and buyers in the market? What are these expectations reflected in?

2.How does the market take into account sellers’ and buyers’ needs?

3.How do consumers and producers react to changes in the market?

4.What balances the amount of a product buyers want to buy with the amount sellers want to sell?

5.What do you think is the function of prices? What could happen if there were only fixed prices?

6.What other factors, apart from prices, affect the behavior of suppliers and demanders?

PRE-TEXT EXERCISES

A. Reading drills

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Ex.1. Practice reading the following words.

aw [ɔ:] law, draw, saw, strawberries, raw, paw, pawl, bawl

ow [au] how, power, down, town,now, plow, mow, howl, scowl ow[əu] low, show, slow,own,know, nowt

Ex. 2. Read the words in the groups below. Pay attention to the word stress. a) words with the stress on the first syllable:

influence, merely, therefore, equal, basically, willingness, preference, weigh, heavily, household, income, maximize, possible, budget, impact, effort, concept, specify, quantity, purchase, demonstrate, upward, revenue, temporary, permanent, obviously, compromise, variable, calculus, relative, offset, volume, vertical, curve, substitute;

b) words with the stress on the second syllable:

society, allow, consume, conventional, determine, afford, demand, behavior, desire, ability, condition, affect, decision, utility, consider, significant, analogous, depending, amount, available, effective, relationship, efficient, forgo, consumption, increase, equipment, facilities, responding, impose, necessity, incentive;

c)polysyllabic words with the main and secondary stress:

economic, competition, microeconomics, combination, independently, represent, fundamental, correlation, allocation, opportunity, unexpected, equilibrium, individual, fluctuation, inelastic.

B. Word formation

Ex. 3. Make up adjectives as in the model.

Model: noun+suffix –(c)ialor –(t)ial→ adjective e.g. society – social

Adverb, commerce, essence, face, race, finance, potency, credence, prudence, president, torrent.

Ex.4. Make up nouns as in the model.

Model: adjective+suffix–ness→noun e.g.ready – readiness

Ill, fit, dark, awkward, lazy, hard, soft, ready, calm, dark, kind, abrupt, absurd, awful, bitter.

Model: verb+suffix –ance or -ence →noun e.g. appearappearance, insureinsurance

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Depend, ignore, maintain, prefer, resist, insist, interfere, assure, accept, absorb, deliver, clear.

What other adjective and noun suffixes do you know?

Find in the text other adjectives and nouns and translate them.

TEXT A: DEMAND AND SUPPLY

Key terms: supply, demand, buying behaviour, microeconomics, decisionmaking unit, effectivedemand, consumer preferences, purchasing choice, utility, buying decision, demand relationship, supply relationship, opportunitycost, the Law of Supply, the Law of Demand, market equilibrium, elasticity, quantity demanded, quantity supplied.

Other words and expressions: to make economic choices, to consume goods and services, under condition of competition, by way of operation, to determine the price of, to be equal to, to refer to, the ability and the willingness to pay, to be affected by, a significant impact, to be available for, the backbone of a market economy, the correlation between, to underlie the forces, allocation of resources, to forgo the consumption of something, to increase revenue, the longterm levels of demand, equipment and production facilities, to shape the market, to reach compromise.

Linking words and phrases: let’s have a close look at; to sum up; in other words; as a result; unlike; however; so far; obviously; in most cases; thus; so; conversely; on the other hand; we would say.

All societies necessarily make economic choices. Society needs to make choices about what should be produced, how those goods and services should be produced, and who is allowed to consume those goods and services. For conventional economics, the market answers these questions by way of the operation of supply and demand. Under conditions of competition, where no one has the power to influence or set price, the market (everyone, producers and consumers together) determines the price of a product, and the price determines what is produced, and who can afford to consume it.

The terms supply and demand do not mean the amount of goods and services actually sold and bought; in any sale the amount sold is equal to the amount bought, and such supply and demand, therefore, are always equal.

Let’s have a closer look at both of them.

In microeconomics, demand refers to the buying behaviour of a household. What does this mean? Basically, micro economists want to try to explain three things:

1.Why do people buy what they buy?

2.How much are they willing to pay?

3.How much do they want to buy? Demand is comprised of three things.

Desire

Ability to pay

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Willingness to pay

It is not enough to merely want or desire an item. One must show the ability to pay and then the willingness to pay. If all three conditions are not met then the demand is not real.

Each household, or small-scale decision-making unit, is affected by different factors when making choices about what to buy and how much to buy. Consumer preferences weigh heavily in a household's buying decisions. Another factor that affects such decisions is income: a millionaire and an average citizen will have very different purchasing choices, since they have different budgets to work on. All buyers will try to maximize their utility, that is, make themselves as happy as possible, by spending what money they have in the best way possible. By considering both their preferences and their budget, they ensure that they end up with the best combination of goods possible. Because the household is such a small unit, no household has a significant impact on the market, and so the actions of any single household is its best effort to react to the market price and the goods available.

At the other side of every transaction is a seller. Economists refer to the behaviour of sellers as the market force of supply. It is the combined forces of supply and demand that make up a market economy. Firms operate independently of each other, making decisions about what to sell, and how much to sell, depending on the price. How do firms make their selling decisions? Once they have decided what to sell, (a decision they make is based on what they believe buyers will want to buy), their decision is then influenced by the market price of the goods.

Supply and demand is perhaps one of the most fundamental concepts of economics and it is the backbone of a market economy. Demand refers to how much (quantity) of a product or service is desired by buyers. The quantity demanded is the amount of a product people are willing to buy at a certain price. The relationship between price and quantity demanded is known as the demand relationship. Supply represents how much the market can offer. The quantity supplied refers to the amount of a certain good producers are willing to supply when receiving a certain price. The correlation between price and how much of a good or service is supplied to the market is known as the supply relationship. Price, therefore, is a reflection of supply and demand.

The relationship between demand and supply underlie the forces behind the allocation of resources. In market economy theories, demand and supply theory will allocate resources in the most efficient way possible. How? Let us take a closer look at the Law of Demand and the Law of Supply.

A. The Law of Demand

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A very important concept in understanding supply and demand theory is elasticity. Robert Pindyck and Daniel Rubinfeld observed in their book

“Microeconomics” that "the demand for a good depends on its price, as well as on consumer income and on the prices of other goods. Similarly, supply depends on price, as well as on variables that affect production cost…. Often, however, we want to know howmuch supply or demand will rise or fall." This measurement of a product or service's responsiveness to market changes is known as elasticity.Todd G. Buchholz, writing in his book “From Here to Economy”: “A Shortcut to Economic Literacy, used an example from the world of sports business to provide an example of economic elasticity: "Will football fans buy the same number of tickets if the team jacks up the prices? If they do, then demand is inelastic. If higher prices lead the fans to cut back their attendance, then demand is elastic, or sensitive to change."

There are three main factors that influence elasticity of supply and demand .

1.The availability of substitutes. This is probably the most important factor influencing the elasticity of a good or service. In general, the more substitutes, the more elastic the demand will be. For example, if the price of a cup of coffee went up by $0.25, consumers could replace their morning caffeine with a cup of tea. This means that coffee is an elastic good because a rise in price will cause a large decrease in demand as consumers start buying more tea instead of coffee.

However, if the price of caffeine were to go up as a whole, we would probably see little change in the consumption of coffee or tea because there are few substitutes for caffeine. Most people are not willing to give up their morning cup of caffeine no matter what the price. We would say, therefore, that caffeine is an inelastic product because of its lack of substitutes. Thus, while a product within an industry is elastic due to the availability of substitutes, the industry itself tends to be inelastic. Usually, unique goods such as diamonds are inelastic because they have few if any substitutes.

2.Amount of income available to spend on the good. This factor affecting demand elasticity refers to the total a person can spend on a particular good or service. Thus, if the price of a can of Coke goes up from $0.50 to $1 and income stays the same, the income that is available to spend on coke, which is $2, is now enough for only two rather than four cans of Coke. In other words, the consumer is forced to reduce his or her demand of Coke. Thus if there is an increase in price and no change in the amount of income available to spend on the good, there will be an elastic reaction in demand; demand will be sensitive to a change in price if there is no change in income.

3.Time. The third influential factor is time. If the price of cigarettes goes up $2 per pack, a smoker with very few available substitutes will most likely continue buying his or her daily cigarettes. This means that tobacco is inelastic because the change in price will not have a significant influence on the quantity demanded. However, if that smoker finds that he or she cannot afford to spend

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the extra $2 per day and begins to kick the habit over a period of time, the price elasticity of cigarettes for that consumer becomes elastic in the long run.

To determine the elasticity of the supply or demand curves, we can use this simple equation: Elasticity = (% change in quantity / % change in price).

It is a measure of relative changes. If elasticity is greater than or equal to one, the curve is considered to be elastic. If it is less than one, the curve is said to be inelastic.

Elasticity varies among products because some products may be more essential to the consumer. Products that are necessities are more insensitive to price changes because consumers would continue buying these products despite price increases. Conversely, a price increase of a good or service that is considered less of a necessity will deter more consumers because the opportunity cost of buying the product will become too high.

A good or service is considered to be highly elastic if a slight change in price leads to a sharp change in the quantity demanded or supplied. Usually these kinds of products are readily available in the market and a person may not necessarily need them in his or her daily life. On the other hand, an inelastic good or service is one in which changes in price witness only modest changes in the quantity demanded or supplied, if any at all. These goods tend to be things that are more of a necessity to the consumer in his or her daily life.

Language notes:

* The phrase "supply and demand" was first used by James Denham-Steuart in his Inquiry into the Principles of Political Economy, published in 1767. Adam

Smith used the phrase in his 1776 book “The Wealth of Nations”, and David Ricardo titled one chapter of his 1817 work “Principles of Political Economy and Taxation” as "On the Influence of Demand and Supply on Price";

Weigh heavily – мати велике значення;

the best combination of goods possible – найкращий вибір товарів; the higher …, the lower …– чим вищий,… тим нижчий;

an upward slope – крива, спрямована вгору.

VOCABULARY FOCUS

Ex.1. Find the English equivalents in the text.

Споживати товари та послуги; традиційна економіка; за умови конкуренції; ринок визначає ціну продукту; насправді куплений чи проданий; не досить лише просто хотіти чи бажати предмет; домашнє господарство; преференції споживача; пересічний громадянин; мати значний вплив на ринок; суть ринкової економіки; справжній попит; відображення попиту та пропозиції; розподіл ресурсів; альтернативнівитрати; бути проданим за певною ціною;ринкова рівновага; наявність замінників; предмет необхідності для споживачів.

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Ex.2. Give Ukrainian equivalents for the following phrases.

To have the power to influence or set price; the operation of supply and demand; the amount of goods and services; to show the ability to pay; consumer preferences; to weigh heavily; to maximize utility; to end up with the best combination; at the other side of; the smallest unit of supply; to make selling decisions; the amount available for sale; the amount purchasers are willing to buy; one of the most fundamental concepts; to be a reflection of; in the most efficient way possible; to show an upward slope; two opposing forces shape the market; fluid equilibrium in a standard market; to be at equilibrium; the percentage change; to vary among products; to be elastic due to availability of substitutes.

Ex.3. Give three forms of the following verbs. Find the sentences with these verbs in the text.

Have, let, mean, buy, pay, show, sell, know, underlie, go, forgo, meet, give, get, understand, become.

Ex.4. Make up noun+noun or adjective+noun collocations (there may be several variants).You can add other word collocations. Give examples either from the text or of your own.

Economic, conventional, decision-making, consumer, demand, market, supply, opportunity, upward, percentage, quantity

Choices, preference, economics, unit, economy, cost, slope, change, relationship, units, demanded.

Model: economic choices

e.g. All societies necessarily make economic choices.

Ex.5. Match up the terms on the left with the definitions on the right.

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Ex.6. Choose an appropriate phrase to complete the following sentences.

The buying behaviour, by way of, which is analogous, the price of a product, would continue buying, weigh heavily, the opportunity cost, to maximize their utility, the amount of a product, in a standard market.

1.For conventional economics, the market answers these questions

_____________ the operation of supply and demand.

2.The market determines _____________ , and the price determines what is produced, and who can afford to consume it.

3.In microeconomics,demand refers to _____________ of a household.

4.Consumer preferences _____________ in a household's buying decisions.

5.All buyers will try _____________ , that is, make themselves as happy as possible, by spending what money they have in the best way possible.

6.The quantity demanded is ________ people are willing to buy at a certain price.

7.In microeconomics, the smallest unit of supply is the firm, _____________ to the demand unit of the household.

8.Because supply and demand can shift and change, equilibrium _____________

is also fluid, responding to changes in either market force.

9.Products that are necessities are more insensitive to price changes because consumers _____________ these products despite price increases.

10.A price increase of a good or service that is considered less of a necessity will deter more consumers because _____________ of buying the product will become too high.

Ex.7. Complete the following sentences with prepositions or adverbs.

1.___ conditions ___ competition, the market determines the price ___ a product.

2.___ microeconomics,demand refers ___ the buying behavior ___ a household.

3.Each household, or small-scale decision-making unit, is affected ____ different factors when making choices ____ what to buy and how much to buy.

4.____ the other side ____ every transaction is a seller.

5.____ considering both their preferences and their budget, the buyers ensure that they end up ____ the best combination ____ goods possible.

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