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8. The Enlightenment

he problem of vital importance for the 18^th century philosophers and writers was the study of man and the origin of his good and evil qualities. Human nature, they claimed, was virtuous and any deviation from virtue was due to the influence of a vicious society. Formulated in this way, the problem acquired social importance. The survivals of feudalism, on the one hand, and the evils of the new system of production, on the other hand, were to be seen everywhere. Progressive writers explained that vice was caused by ignorance and the way out was to enlighten the people. Thus, the 18^th century English writers started a public movement of Enlightenment. They hoped to improve the world by teaching and bringing the light of knowledge to the population. The enlighteners rejected Church dogmas and class distinctions.

The movement of the Enlightenment appeared in England, and then spread to the Continent. Later, France produced eminent writers who fought for enlightening the people: Voltaire, Rousseau and others In every country, supporters of the Enlightenment shared the same views: a deep hatred for feudalism and its survivals, systematic education for all, self-government and liberty. They all spoke up for the ordinary people particularly for peasants whose fate was to be decided in the 18^th century.

Notwithstanding these common features, there was a difference between the ideas expressed by the English and those expressed by the French writers of the period: an intellectual calm is felt in English literature because the English were past their revolution, while in France the turbulent spirit of the fight for freedom was only beginning. The French literature of the Enlightenment prepared the French for the Great Revolution which broke out at the end of the 18^th century.

• Literature of the Enlightenment

In England, the period saw the transition from the poetic age of Shakespeare to the prosaic age of essayists. The style of prose became clear, graceful and polished. Writers accepted such literary forms as were intelligible to all. Satire gained popularity. The period also saw the rise of the political pamphlet. Most of the authors of the time wrote political pamphlets, but the best came from the pens of Daniel Defoe and Jonathan Swift. Among the best known essayists were Steele and Addison. Periodical newspapers had been published since the Civil War, and in 1702 the first daily newspaper was established.

Much of the drama was written in prose, and the leading form of literature was the novel. The hero of the novel was no longer a prince, but a representative of the middle class. That had never happened before – ordinary people had usually been represented only as comical characters.

Towards the middle of the century there appeared a new literary trend – sentimentalism. Richardson, Goldsmith, Fielding – those names evoked a lively response in the hearts of readers both in Europe and across the Atlantic. The first writer of the sentimental school in Europe was Samuel Richardson. His novels Pamela, Clarissa and History of Sir Charles Grandison were the works that showed the inner world of the characters. Richardson appealed to the hearts of the readers and made them sympathize with his unfortunate heroes. The novels were a tremendous success in the 18^th and 19^th centuries all over Europe.

We can say that the English writers of the Enlightenment formed two groups. Those who hoped to better the world merely by teaching were Joseph Addison (who wrote essays), Richard Steele (who wrote essays, comedies), Daniel Defoe (the author of Robinson Crusoe), Alexander Pope (the author of The Rape of the Lock), Samuel Richardson (the author of Pamela). The other group included the writers who openly protested against the vicious social order. Those were Jonathan Swift (the author of Gulliver’s Travels), Henry Fielding (who wrote The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling), Oliver Goldsmith (the author of The Vicar of Wakefield), Richard Sheridan (the author of The School for Scandal), Tobias Smollett (the author of Peregrine Pickle), Robert Burns (who wrote Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect).

The poetry of the 18^th century was didactic and satirical. It was the poetry of the town and its fashionable life as well as the poetry of worldly wisdom. The leading poet of the century was Alexander Pope – one of the first English classicists. He had little contact with the average reader because in order to read and enjoy Pope one had to be familiar with the works of Horace, Virgil and the Greek poet Theocritus. In 1715 Pope published his translations of the Iliad and the Oddysey by Homer, which made him famous. Pope had a delicate sense of style, which he polished to the last degree of gleaming finish. His poems, such as The Rape of the Lock, are notable for their elegant style.

Pope organized a society of literary men who called themselves the “Martin Scriblerus’ Club”. Martin Scriblerus was an imaginary personage: anyone who wished to publish a satire in a magazine was allowed to use the name of Martin Scriblerus as a pseudonym. Pope hoped that when put together those stories would make an interesting book. But they remained isolated compositions. Yet, it was Martin Scriblerus that inspired Swift to write the famous novel Gulliver’s Travels.

• Robert Burns (1759-1796)

Robert Burns, who is rightly considered to be the national pride o f Scotland, began writing poetry at the age of 15. But it was only 10 years later that his first volume of poems was published – Poems: Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect. The book won him immediate success. The source of Burns’ poetry is Scottish folklore. Burns was deeply aware of the dignity and equality of men. He wrote epigrams on idle noblemen and at the same time composed tender lyrical verses.

Oh my luve’s like a red, red rose…, John Barleycorn, The Tree of Liberty, Auld Lang Syne – these famous poems and songs have been popular for two centuries. The Burns festival is held every year with people coming from all over the world.

Most of Burns' poems were written in Scots. They document and celebrate traditional Scottish culture. Burns wrote in a variety of forms: letters to friends, ballads, and songs. He is well known for the over three hundred songs which celebrate love, friendship, work, and drink with often hilarious and tender sympathy. Even today, he is often referred to as the National Bard of Scotland.

• Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)

Doctor Johnson is little known outside Britain. But in his time he was a popular English poet, essayist, biographer, lexicographer and a critic of English Literature.

In the words of a modern scholar, he was a “great literary personality”. He compiled and published the Dictionary of the English Language (1755). Despite common assumptions that Dr. Johnson wrote the first dictionary of the English language, there had been nearly twenty "English" dictionaries in the preceding 150 years. Johnson's dictionary was to rise above all these because of his meticulous research; his depth and breadth of definitions and his careful use of description.

Samuel Johnson was the son of a poor bookseller. He attended Lichfield Grammar School and a few weeks after he turned nineteen, he became a student of Oxford University. After thirteen months, however, poverty forced him to leave Oxford without taking a degree and he returned to Lichfield. Just before the publication of his Dictionary, Oxford University awarded Johnson the degree of Master of Arts. In 1775, Oxford University awarded him an honorary doctorate.

The two outstanding figures in the 18th century literature of England were Daniel Defoe and Jonathan Swift.

• Jonathan Swift (1667-1745)

Swift was an Irish-born Englishman who spent a large part of his life in Ireland. He got a Bachelor’s degree in 1686 and for a long time had to work as a private secretary and accountant to Sir William Temple, a statesman and a courtier, who resided at Moor Park, not far from London. And although Sir William liked the young man, the ambitious Swift considered that he was treated just a little better than a servant. In 1692 he went to Oxford to take his Master’s degree. After that he became a vicar at a little parish church in Ireland. Later, he returned to Sir William Temple and continued working for him and writing pamphlets and satires in his spare time. Swift was one of the most critical and sarcastic journalists of the time. One of his best-known pamphlets wasThe Tale of the Tub.

Swift was wonderfully popular in England and especially in Ireland. The Lord Governor of Ireland once said that all he managed to do in Ireland was done with the kind permission of Mr. Swift. But his life could hardly be called happy. By the end of his life he became even more embittered and satirical than before. Swift's misfortunes and the death of his wife undermined his health. In 1740 his memory and reason were gone. He became completely deaf. He wouldn't touch food if there was anyone present in the room. He died in Dublin in 1745.

What brought Swift real fame was his book Gulliver's Travels. In that book Swift satirized the evils of the existing society. It was altogether a novelty in English literature.

At first Swift intended to publish the book as the story of Martin Scriblerus. But later he heard of a farmer called Gulliver, who was a real giant, so strong and tall that he could carry a horse across a fence. That impressed Swift tremendously, and that is how his favourite character got his name.

The first two travels – to the land of Lilliputs and to the land of Brobdingnag (the giants) – are well-known as children's entertaining reading. In the description of the third voyage – to the floating island of Laputa, and the fourth – the land of the intelligent horses, Swift abandons delicate fancy and unmasks the selfish and brutal nature of humanity. He shows the stupidity of the so-called academicians and the true nature of human civilization. In the land of the intelligent horses, humans, called Yahoos, are shown as filthy degenerated creatures, unable to speak clearly or do any decent work. The book is written with wonderful energy and polemical skill. It has been translated into many languages and is read and enjoyed by thousands of readers.

• Daniel Defoe (1661-1731)

D. Defoe was born in London to the family of a butcher who was a Dissenter, that is, a non-conformist. Their family name was Foe. Daniel was about 40 years of age when he first changed his signature of D. Foe into De Foe and then Defoe. Daniel got the best education his father could afford. The boy was to become a minister in the Nonconformist Church; therefore, at the age of 14, he was placed in an academy for a full course of five years. But when his training was completed, he refused to devote himself to the Church. In his opinion, it was neither honourable and pleasant, nor profitable. He decided to start business as a merchant. But though he was energetic and practical, a businessman to his fingertips, Defoe never succeeded in business. He went bankrupt several times. What he used to say was, “Thirty times I was rich and poor”. The only branch of business in which he proved to be successful was journalism and literature.

When Defoe was 23, he started writing pamphlets. Usually he was very outspoken and wrote what he thought. That’s why his pamphlets sometimes got him into trouble. In 1685 he took part in the revolt led by the Duke of Monmouth, the illegitimate son of Charles II, against James II. Monmouth hoped to get the Crown with the help of the Protestants. The rebellion was put down, and Defoe had a narrow escape.

When the Protestant king, William III, came to power in 1688, Defoe wrote pamphlets praising his policy. It was the beginning of his literary career. Defoe anticipated the greatest public improvement of modern times; higher education for women, the protection of seamen, the construction of highways and the opening of savings-banks. He urged the establishment of a special academy to study literature and languages.

Owing to the fact that William III was the king of the Whig party, he was attacked by the Tories, who called him Dutch William. Some Tories demanded in pamphlets that the English race should be kept pure. Opposing this foolish idea, Defoe wrote the pamphlet The True-Born Englishman in which he proved that a true-born Englishman did not exist, since the English nation consisted of Danes, Picts, Scots, Angles, Saxons, Normans and other peoples. He said “A true-born Englishman is a contradiction in speech, an irony, in fact, a fiction.” The king personally thanked Defoe for the pamphlet.

During the reign of Queen Anne, persecution of the Dissenters began again. In 1702 Defoe wrote a pamphlet in defence of the Dissenters (The shortest Way With the Dissenters) in which he attacked the Tories and the established Church. But the irony was so subtle that the enemy did not recognize it at first. They considered it to be next best to the Bible. When they realized the real character of the pamphlet, Defoe was sentenced to seven years’ imprisonment. To disgrace him even more, the Tories subjected him to standing in the pillory in a public square. Before he went to prison, he wrote his Hymn to the Pillory, in which he demanded a fair trial. Though the Hymn was not published, Defoe’s friends made it popular. It was sung on street corners on the day of the public execution. Many of the poorer Londoners, who knew Defoe well, gathered round the pillory, forming a live fence and preventing the crowd from tormenting him. Women threw flowers to him. When the time came to set him free, people cheered him and carried him from the square on their shoulders. That was the climax of his political career - and the end of it.

After his release he worked as an editor of a journal, which supported the ruling party - his former enemies. After the death of Queen Anne, the Whigs came to power, and Defoe continued serving the new ruling party. All this time he was regularly receiving money from the government. But the English government never paid money for nothing - only for some services. Later, it turned out that Defoe had been in her Majesty’s Secret Service.

In 1719 he tried his hand in fiction and wrote the famous novel about the adventures of Robinson Crusoe. The idea of writing about a man who had to live on a desert island was taken from a story published in Steele's magazine “The Englishmen”. It was about a sailor Alexander Selkirk, who had spent four years and four months on a desert island. Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe spent 26 years alone on his island. The novel is praise to human labour and the triumph of man over nature. Labour and fortitude help Robinson to endure hardships. They save him from despair. The very process of hard work gives him satisfaction.

Defoe is a great master of realistic detail. When reading his description of Crusoe’s life and work, one feels that the author must have lived through all the adventures himself. The charm of the novel lies in Robinson as a person. He develops into a strong-willed man, able to withstand all the calamities of life.

The novel is a study of man, a great work showing man in relation to nature and civilization.

When Robinson Crusoe was published, Defoe became famous and came into money. He was now able to pay his debts. He built himself a house and kept a coach and a pleasure-boat.

It is said that not long before his death Defoe fell victim to a serious mental disease. In 1729 he was at work on a new book. Part of it was in print when he broke off abruptly and fled. He was very fond of his wife and daughters, but did not want them to know his hiding-place. For two years he lived in poverty and quite alone, and died in 1731. The inscription on his gravestone says, "Daniel Defoe. Author of Robinson Crusoe..."

DO YOU KNOW THAT
The Bank of England was founded in 1694 by William Paterson, a Scotsman. The Bank of Scotland was founded in 1695 by John Holland, an Englishman. The first English coffeehouse, named Angel, was established in Oxford, be a certain Jewish entrepreneur named Jacob, in 1650. Oxford coffeehouses developed into “penny universities”, which occupied a significant position in Oxford academic life	?