Independent

government agencies

EXECUTIVE

Congress can change laws;initiate a constitutional amendment; restrict jurisdiction of courts to hear

certain types of cases; create whole new court systems

or abolish existing ones;

expand or contract times and places that

federal courts sit

The Congress House—Senate

May reject each other's bills

The Senate must confirm the

president's judicial appointments;

Congress can impeach and remove

judges from office

The Court can declare lawsunconstitutional

The Supreme Court of the United States

Circuit Court of

Appeals of the

United States

District Court

LEGISLATIVE

JUDICIAL

POLITICAL PARTICIPATION

By dividing power among the three branches of government, the Constitu­tion effectively ensures that government power will not be usurped by a small powerful group or a few leaders.

The basic framework of American government is described in the Constitu­tion. However, there are other features of the political system, not mentioned in the Constitution, which directly and indirectly influence American politics.

Groups and individuals have a variety of ways they can exert pressure and try to influence government policy. Many people write letters to elected officials expressing their approval or disapproval of a political decision. People some­times circulate petitions or write letters to editors of newspapers and magazines to try to influence politicians. Organized interest groups, however, can generally exert influence much more effectively than can isolated individuals.

146 AMERICA IN CLOSE-UP

INTEREST GROUPS

LOBBYISTS

POLITICAL PARTY SYSTEM

TWO-PARTY SYSTEM

MINOR PARTIES

Interest groups are organized by people who want to influence public policy decisions on special issues. There are many different types of interest groups in the United States. The largest organizations are labor unions, such as the AFL-CIO; business groups, such as the United States Chamber of Commerce; farm groups, such as the National Farmers' Union; and professional groups, such as the American Medical Association. There are many issue-oriented groups with broad concerns such as the environment, civil rights, and peace. Some interest groups focus on narrow issues such as the preservation of historic buildings or the control of neighborhood crime.

What all the various interest groups have in common is the desire to sway public opinion and political policy. The press, radio, and television are the most obvious media through which interest groups may influence voters and politicians. Members of interest groups also write letters to government officials, make telephone calls, hold public meetings, and sponsor newspaper advertisements.

To exert direct pressure on legislators in Washington or in state capitals, a major interest group may employ a professional lobbyist. A lobbyist, generally a lawyer or former legislator, is someone who not only specializes in the interest he or she represents, but also possesses an insider's view of the lawmaking process. Lobbyists work for interest groups by keeping them in­formed about proposed legislation and by talking to decision-makers about their group's concerns.

The term lobbyist often has a negative connotation. Public officials and others sometimes resent lobbyists' interference. Yet lobbyists fulfill vital func­tions. Besides voicing the concerns of a special group in society, they fulfill important needs of decision-makers. Legislators and their staff frequently turn to lobbyists for valuable data they would otherwise have to gather themselves. During the committee stage in the legislative process, for instance, lobbyists are invited to appear before congressional committees to provide advice and information, albeit one-sided, which will help the committee make a decision.

While they are not mentioned in the Constitution, organized interest groups and their lobbyists play a significant role in American democracy. The political party system is another important part of the political scene which is not described in the Constitution.

Historically, three features have characterized the party system in the United States: 1) two major parties alternating in power; 2) lack of ideology; and 3) lack of unity and party discipline.

The United States has had only two major parties throughout its history. When the nation was founded, two political groupings emerged-the Federal­ists and Anti-Federalists. Since then, two major parties have alternated in power.

For over one hundred years, America's two-party system has been dominated by the Democratic and Republican Parties. Neither party, however, has ever completely dominated American politics. On the national level, the majority party in Congress has not always been the same as the party of the president.

Even in years when one party dominated national politics, the other party retained much support at state or local levels. Thus, the balance between the Democrats and Republicans has shifted back and forth.

While minor parties, also called "third parties," have appeared from time to time, and continue to appear, they have been conspicuous in their inability to attract enough voters to enable them to assume power. Occasionally, a third

THE POLITICAL SYSTEM 147

MAJORITY PARTIES IN CONGRESSAND PARTY OF THE PRESIDENT, 1861-1983

Years	House	Senate	President
1861-1863	R	R	R
1863-1865	R	R	R
1865-1867	R	R	R
1867-1869	R	R	R
1869-1871	R	R	R
1871-1873	R	R	R
1873-1875	R	R	R
1875-1877	D	R	R
1877-1879	D	R	R
1879-1881	D	D	R
1881-1883	R	R	R
1883-1885	D	R	R
1885-1887	D	R	D
1887-1889	D	R	D
1889-1891	R	R	R
1891-1893	D	R	R
1893-1895	D	D	D
1895-1897	R	R	D
1897-1899	R	R	R
1899-1901	R	R	R
1901-1903	R	R	R
1903-1905	R	R	R
1905-1907	R	R	R
1907-1909	R	R	R
1909-1911	R	R	R
1911-1913	D	R	R
1913-1915	D	D	D
1915-1917	D	D	D
1917-1919	D	D	D
1919-1921	R	R	D
1921-1923	R	R	R
1923-1925	R	R	R
1925-1927	R	R	R

Years	House	Senate	President
1927-1929	R	R	R
1929-1931	R	R	R
1931-1933	D	R	R
1933-1935	D	D	D
1935-1937	D	D	D
1937-1939	D	D	D
1939-1941	D	D	D
1941-1943	D	D	D
1943-1945	D	D	D
1945-1947	D	D	D
1947-1949	R	R	D
1949-1951	D	D	D
1951-1953	D	D	D
1953-1955	R	R	R
1955-1957	D	D	R
1957-1959	D	D	R
1959-1961	D	D	R
1961-1963	D	D	D
1963-1965	D	D	D
1965-1967	D	D	D
1967-1969	D	D	D
1969-1971	D	D	R
1971-1973	D	D	R
1973-1975	D	D	R
1975-1977	D	D	R
1977-1979	D	D	D
1979-1981	D	D	D
1981-1983	D	R	R
1983-1985	D	R	R
1985-1987	D	R	R
1987-1989	D	D	R
1989-1991	D	D	R

R Republican D Democrat

© American Government: Principals & Practices, 1983, Merrill Publishing Company. Reprinted by permission of the publisher (updated)

148 AMERICA IN CLOSE-UP

ELECTION SYSTEM

DEMOCRATS AND REPUBLICANS

party candidate will win a seat in Congress or in a state legislature. Seldom, however, have minor parties been successful for more than a short period of time. In most cases, minor parties have been assimilated by the larger two or have just faded away.

Some current third parties in the United States are the Socialist Labor Party, the American Independent Party, the Libertarian Party, and the Peace and Freedom Party.

The way candidates are elected explains why two major parties have come to dominate the American political scene. Elections are held according to the single-member district system, based on the principle of "winner take all." Under this system, only one candidate —the one with the most votes—is elected to a given office from any one district. Many people will not vote for a minor party candidate; they feel they are throwing away a vote since only one person wins.

The Democratic and Republican Parties have supporters among a wide variety of Americans and embrace a wide range of political views.

POLITICAL AFFILIATION

Question: "In politics,	as of today	, do you consider yourself a Republican,
Democrat, or an Independent?"
	R	D	I		R	D	I
National	26%	43%	31%
Sex				$15,000-$19,999	22	42	36
Male	27	40	33	$10,000-$14,999	26	44	30
Female	25	46	29	$5,000-$9,999	22	50	28
Race				Under $5,000	19	56	25
White	28	38	34	Religion
Southern	28	43	29	Protestant	ЗП	42	28
Non-southern	29	36	35	Catholic	?n	48	32
Non-white	7	80	13	Jewish	12	54	34
Non-southern	5	82	13	Occupation
				Professional & business	33	34	33
Education				Clerical & sales	23	44	33
College	31	34	35	Manual worker	20	46	34
High school	24	45	31	Skilled	23	40	37
Grade school	22	55	23	Unskilled	17	51	32
				Farmer	40	32	28
Region				Non-labor force	29	48	23
East	24	44	32
Midwest	26	37	37
South	25	49	26	City Size
West	30	41	29	1,000,000 & over	21	51	28
				500,000-999,999	23	42	35
Age				50,000-499,999	25	43	32
18-24 years	21	38	41	2,500-49,999	30	40	30
25-29	24	3fl	40	Under 2,500,rural	30	39	31
30-49	24	43	33	Central city	19	51	30
50 and older	31	47	22	Suburb	21	39	34
Income				Labor Union
$25,000 & over	33	34	33	Labor union families	?n	m	30
$20,000-$24,999	27	41	32	Non-labor union families	28	41	31
					R-Republican
					D-Democrat
Survey taken October- December 1980					l-lndependent

Source: The Gallup Opinion Index

© American Government: Principals & Practices, 1983, Merrill Publishing Company. Reprinted by permission of the publisher

THE POLITICAL SYSTEM 149

KEY ISSUES

The parties tend to be similar. Democrats and Republicans support the same overall political and economic goals. Neither party seeks to shake the founda­tion of America's economy or social structure.

Democrats and Republicans, however, often propose different means of achieving their similar goals. Democrats generally believe that the federal government and state governments should provide social and economic pro­grams for those who need them.

While Republicans do not necessarily oppose social programs, they believe that many social programs are too costly for taxpayers. They tend to favor big business and private enterprise and want to limit the role of government.

A poll taken in 1986 by Louis Harris and Associates reveals how Americans perceive the stance of each party on certain key issues:

Builds up defenses

Cuts federal spending

Keeps economy prosperous

Handles federal deficit

Controls arms race Cuts unemployment

Works for peace

Controls defense budget

Gives women a break

Protects environment

Helps elderly and poor

к» WHICH PARTY FARES

BETTER ON THE i46% ISSUES?

HI Republican "1 Democrat

99%

LACK OF IDEOLOGY

Because of these differences, Americans tend to think of the Democratic Party as liberal and the Republican Party as conservative.

American party politics has been largely devoid of ideology. Several attempts at developing an ideological party were unsuccessful. The Populist Party of the 1890s and the Progressive Party of the early twentieth century gained only temporary support. Senator Barry Goldwater, the Republican candidate in the 1964 election, tried to imbue his party with the spirit and force of a conserva­tive ideology. Yet the election resulted in a landslide victory for Democratic candidate Lyndon Johnson. These examples suggest that Americans tend to prefer somewhat vague party programs to the rigors of political ideology.

150 AMERICA IN CLOSE-UP

LACK OF PARTY

UNITY

PARTY ORGANIZATION

PARTY MEMBERSHIP

LOW VOTER TURNOUT

A third characteristic of the American party system, which sometimes con­founds foreign observers, is the lack of unity and discipline within each party. Disagreement among members of the same party is common.

The voting records of Congressmen and Senators demonstrate a baffling lack of party unity. It is not uncommon for either a Democrat or a Republican to vote against the party line. There are conservative Democrats who agree with Republican ideas and liberal Republicans who agree with Democratic ideas. Personal views and the views of constituents often have priority over party views.

The loose organization of America's political parties helps explain this lack of unity within American parties, which contrasts sharply with more tightly-organized, ideologically-oriented western European parties.

In the United States, parties are decentralized, with relatively few members. Parties are organized as loose confederations of state parties, which, in turn, are decentralized down to the local level. Local party committees, which are numerous, are relatively independent of each other. Only during national elections do party committees join together to clarify issues. Party leadership, insofar as it can be located, is in the hands of a few officials and other notables.

The absence of an organized party structure and established hierarchy of leaders contributes to party disunity. Furthermore, candidates and elected officials are not held accountable for following the party line. Even at national party conventions, no formally binding party platform is drawn up.

Party membership is equally undemanding. Republicans and Democrats undergo no official initiation, pay no membership dues, and have no obligation to attend meetings or even vote for the party. Identification with a particular political party has less significance in the United States than in most other western democracies.

Political parties, interest groups, and elections are opportunities for citizens to participate in the democratic process. Many Americans, however, are poli­tically uninvolved.

Although every citizen has the right to vote, the percentage of the voting age population that participates in elections is quite low. Voter turnout for presidential elections is usually under 60 percent, and the percentage is even lower for state and local elections.

Ill®

Ф.Риге

Political Participation in National Elections

f?

1964* 1966 1968* Percent who reported that they registered to vote

1970 1972* 1974 1976* 1978 1980* „ .j. Percent who reported

that they VOted •Presidential Election Year

THE POLITICAL SYSTEM 151

Voter turnout in other democratic nations is much higher:

_L Percent of Voting Age Population

90 -

80

70

60

з у

₁₁₅

и з 5

50

T

1965

1970

1975

1980

8°

Several factors may contribute to these differences in voter participation: —Unlike most of the nations shown on the graph, the United States requires early voter registration.

—Election campaigns tend to be much longer in the United States than in many other nations. After following campaigns that sometimes begin a year or more before the election, many Americans lose interest and do not vote. —American elections are always held on Tuesdays, a normal working day, whereas elections in many other nations are held on weekends. —The American two-party system may contribute to low voter turnout because voters' choice is limited.

—The other democratic nations shown on the graph have parliamentary systems, in which the outcome of the election determines both the executive and legislative branches of government. Voters in these countries may feel that their vote carries more weight.

The United States Constitution established a system in which the people have the right, whether they exercise it or not, to influence the direction of government.

152

_{part в Texts}

Perspective of a Public Man

An Interview with Hubert Humphrey

The late Senator Hubert Humphrey was a leading figure in American government for more than30 years. He served as mayor of Minneapolis, United States senator, vice president and was the Democratic party's candidate for president in 1968. He was an outspoken champion of civil rights, a strong advocate of nuclear disarmament and the author of much legislation on both domestic and foreign policy issues.

In this interview with CLOSE UP, conducted in 1977, Senator Humphrey discusses his long experience in public life and the importance of inspiration and motivation in effecting change.

QUESTION All of the problems and policies that you have been discussing emphasize the need for leader­ship of the highest caliber in the halls of government. What are the qualities which make someone an effec­tive leader of the people?

Senator Humphrey: Motivation. The difference bet­ween a great president and just a president is whether or not he can motivate people to greater achievements. As Teddy Roosevelt said, "You have to make the White House a bully pulpit." You have to be a com­bination of educator and evangelist. You have to move people. What we need in our society today is a kind of clarion call. People also need to learn to have pri­orities, because you can't do everything. That's where leadership comes in.

As a senator, I've always felt that my job is more than passing legislation. I see my role in politics as be­ing the cutting edge of progress. I've spent most of my time out with the people, planting ideas by talking with hundreds of audiences. I've taken a lot of razzing for it, but I have my own methodology. I've tried to be a teacher as well as a senator. To do this you have to take your message out to the people. To be a teacher, you have to have more than a classroom, you've got to have students. You've got to have more than a rostrum, you've got to have people who will listen and you have to make your message sufficiently simple and yet profound. The good teacher is the one who knows how to simplify great, difficult problems and, at the same time, make them interesting so that he holds his audience. You have to recognize that it requires repeti­tion. You must keep in mind that people can only ab­sorb so much at any one session. You repeat, repeat, repeat with adaptation so that you make it interesting. It's like a song: Even the most beautiful classical music maybe has just two or three themes in it, repeated time after time in different variations. That is what a leader, what a teacher, has to do.

Hubert Humphrey

Another part of being a leader is being willing to run the risk of unpopularity. I don't like people in public life, particularly as presidents, mayors and governors, who can't make decisions. You have to make decisions.

Sometimes people come to me and say, "Well, the reason I have to vote like this is that the Gallup poll showed this or that." The Gallup poll is a momentary, current, unscientific survey of what is called public opi­nion. The important question is, "What do you think is right?" Now you don't ignore public opinion, but if you have a strong conviction, you do it. I, for ex­ample, had a strong conviction about civil rights legisla­tion. There wasn't much public opinion on my side— I'll guarantee you that—and surely not among the political powerhouses. I ran right smack bang into all of them. But I felt I was right. And, if you feel you're right, you stay with it. Yet you also recognize that you can't get everything you want on day one. It may be a long, arduous process.

THE POLITICAL SYSTEM 153