1500 - 1660 Renaissance period.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DRAMA TO 1561

SHAKESPEARE'S PREDECESSORS

Literature of the Early Renaissance in England

In prose we find little as yet that can be classed as literature.

William Tyndale's English New Testament (Yовый Завет) (1525), the complete English Bible of Miles Coverdale (1535), and Cromwell's 'Great Bible' (1539), reflect the steady growth of popular interest in the Sriptures (Писания).

The Utopia of Sir Thomas More (1478 - 1535) is one of the most typical works of this time. In his Utopia (1516) Thomas More gave a profound and truthful picture of the people's sufferings and put forward his idea of a future happy society. For its descriptions about ideal state of soceity T. More owes much , on the one hand, to Plato 's Republic , and, on the government, and on the other hand , to the general speculations about life, government, and religion, which the intellectual awakening had naturally brought in its train; but though written in Latin in 1516, it did not enter English literature till 1551, when it was translated by Ralhp Robinson.

In the revival of English poetry the most pronounced (резко выраженное) direct influence(непосредственное влияние) was that of Italy. The lyrical poetry of Renaissance is distinguished for its keen interest in the inner world of man, in his emotions, his aspirations for the ideal and beautiful, his strivings for happiness.

In the second half of the 16th century lyrical poetry became so widespread in England that the country was then called "a nest of singing birds". Among the outstanding lyrical and epic poets of the time were Philip Sidney (1554 - 1568), Thomas Campion (1567 - 1620), and Edmund Spencer (1552 - 1599). The letter was the author of the greatest epic poem of the time The Fairy Queen (Королева фей), an allegorical description of the adventures of knights and ladies, who fight against the vicissitudes(превратность) of life and gain victory over the forces of evil. The poem is written in nine-line stanzas , so called "Spenserian stanza", noted for their harmony and expressivness.

Various types of the novel developed in the 16 th century. John Lyly (1553 ? - 1606) and Thomas Lodge (1558? - 1625) were authors of novels dealing with court life and gallantry. Lyly's novel Eupheus (Эвфуэс, или анатомия остроумия)which gave rise (давать начало) to the term "'euphumism" (эвфемизм) designating an affected (притворный, жеманный) style of court speech.

The development of the drama to 1561.

The history of the English drama takes us back to the century succeeding (следовать за...) the coming of the Normans, the earliest mention of any dramatic representation in this country referring to a performance of a Latin play in Honour of St. Katherine, at Dunstable about 1110. By the time of the Norman Conquest a form of religious drama , had already established itself in France, and as a matter of course (естественно) it soon found its way to England. Its purpose was directly didactic; that is, it was the work of ecclesiastical authors, who used it as a means for instructing the unlettered masses in the truths of their religion. To begin with, the Church had this drama under complete control; performances were given in the sacred buildings themselves; the priests were the actors; and the language employed was the Latin of the service. But as the miracle play, as it was called, increased in popularity, and on great occasions larger and larger crowds thronged (толпиться) about (вокруг) the church, it became necessary to remove the stage from the interior [ ] of the building to the porch. Later, it was taken from the porch into the churchyard , and finally from the precincts of the church altogether (всецело) to the village green (лужайка) or the city street. Laymen (миряне) at the same time began to take part in the performances, and presently they superseded [ ] заменили the clerical actors entirely, while the vernacular tongue - fisrst French, then English - was substituted for the original Latin.

A later stage (стадия, период) in the evolution of the drama is marked by the morality play. This, like the miracle play, was didactic ; but its characters were personified abstractions. All sorts of mental and moral qualities thus appeared embodied in types - Science, Perseverance, Free Will, Mundus, the Five Senses, the Seven Deadly Sins (separately or together), Good or Bad Angels, Now-a-Days, Young England, Everyman, Humanum Genus. As the morality play was not, like miracle play, obliged [ ai](обязан) to follow the prescribed lines of any given story, it had greater freedom in the handling ( в трактовке) both of plot and characters. Little by little, as the personified abstractions came more and more to resemble individual persons, the morality passed insensibly (незаметно, постепенно) into comedy. The interlude (комическая сценка, фарс) was also a late product of the dramatic development of the morality play. This form grew up early in the sixteenth century, and is rather closely associated with the name of John Heywood (1497? - 1580), who for a time was court musician and general provider of intertainments to Henry III. His Four P's (Четыре П) is the most amusing specimen (образец) of its class .

These early experiments in play - writing are of great importance historically, because they provided a kind of "Dame School" (школа для маленьких детей) for English dramatic genius, and did much to prepare the way for the regular drama. At first, the comedies of Plautus (Плавт) and Terence , and the tragedies of Seneca were themselves acted at the universities before audiences of scholars. Then came Latin imitations. English writers learned many valuable lessons in the principles of dramatic construction and technique. The first real English comedy, Ralph Roister Doister (Ральф Ройстер Дойстер), was written about 1550 by Nicholas Udall (Николай Юдоль), head master of Eton, for performance by his schoolboys in place of the regular Latin play. It is composed in riming couplets, divided into acts and scenes in the Latin style, and deals in an entertaining way with the wooing of Dame Custance by the vainglorious hero, his various misadventures, and the pranks (проказы, шутки) of Matthew Marrygreek the jester (шут). Though greatly indebted to Plautus and Terence, it is everywhere reminiscent of ( напоминающий) the older humours of the miracle plays and the moralities.

The first real English tragedy , on the other hand, is an almost pedantic effort to reproduce the forms and spirit of Senecan tragedy. It is entitled Gorboduc (Горбодук, или Феррекс и Поррекс) (or later, Ferrex and Porrex); is based upon an episode in Geoffrey of Monmouth's history; and was written by Thomas Sackville (Томас Секвиль) and Thomas Norton (Томас Нортон) for representation before the members of the Inner Temple at their Christmas festivities of 1561. It is interesting point (момент, вопрос) that this first English tragedy was also the first of English plays to use blanc verse, which had been introduced into English poetry only a few years before.

The first regular theatre in London was build in 1576 by James Burbage and was simply called the "Theater". The theatres in those times were wooden structures , the boxes and the stage being under thatched roof, and the middle part - the pit - roofless. The rich people occupied the boxes, or sat on stools upon the stage, while common people - artisans, yeomen, sailors and tradesmen - stood in the pit. There was no scenery but rude imitations of towers, woods etc.

All the actors were men, female parts were performed by boys.

Shakespeare's Predecessors.

Lyly is the most widely known as the author of a prose romance entitled "Euphues or the Anatomy of Wit" (Эвфуэс, или анатомия остроумия, 1579 ) of which we have spoken above. His dramatic work consists of eight comedies, of which the best are "Alexander and Campaspe" (Александр и Кампаспа , 1584), "Endymion, or the Man of the Moon" (Эндимион , или человек на луне, 1588) , and

"Gallathea "(Галатея). These were written for perfomance at the court, and the interest in them depends not on plot, situation, or even characterisation, but on language - that is, on the wit, point, ingenuity(изобретательность), and grace of the dialogue. At that time when the humours of the public stage ran often into coarseness and horse-play (грубое развлечение), Lyly helped to give comedy an intellectual tone. In this, as well as in his skill in clever repartee (остроумный ответ), and in his continual use of puns, conceits, and all sorts of verbal fireworks, he anticipated Shakespeare, whose early comedies, such as Love's Labour Lost (Бесплодные усилия любви, 1594) and А Midsummer Night's Dream ( Сон в летнюю ночь, 1595), obviously owe (быть обязанным)much to his example. From Lyly Shakespeare also learned how to combine (as in two plays just named) a courtly (изысканный) main plot with episodes of rustic blunders and clownish fooling. In these things Lyly set a fashion which others, including Shakespeare, followed , and in comedy he was undeniably Shakespeare's first master.

The greatest of the pioneers of English drama was Christopher Marlowe (1564 - 1593) (Кристофер Марло) who reformed that genre in England and perfected the language and verse of dramatic works. It was Marlowe who made blank verse the principal vehicle of expression in drama. A man of fiery [ai] пламенный imagination and immense though ill -regulated powers, who lived in wild Bohemian life, and while still was killed in a drunken brawl, he was by nature far more of a lyric poet than a dramatist; yet his Tamburlaine the Great( Тамерлан Великий 1587-1588), The tragical History of Doctor Faustus (Трагическая история доктора Фауста, 1588 - 1589), The Jew of Malta (Мальтийский еврей, 1592) and the Edward II give him the place of pre - eminence among pre - Shakespearean playwriters. That Shakespeare, who must have known him well, and probably collaborated with him, was at first profoundly inluenced by him, is evident. His early blank verse is fashioned (смоделировать) on Marlower's. His Richard III and Richard II are clearly based on the model of chronicle play provided in Edward II. Even in The Merchant of Venice (Веницианский купец, 1956)there are many details to show that Shakespeare wrote with The Jew of Malta in mind.

Thus we now enter what we broadly call the Shakespearian Age.

The list of literature used:

A Handbook to Literature by C. Hugh Holman, William Harmon. 1992, New-York, London, 6th edition;

An Outline on History of English Literature by Hudson H.W. Bombay.: BI Publication, 1964;

LECTURE 12

THE 16TH CENTURY

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

(1564 - 1616)

The greatest of all English authors, William Shakespeare belongs to those rare geniuses of mankind who have become landmarks in the history of world culture. The works of William Shakespeare are a great landmark (веха, поворотный пункт) in the history of world literature for he was one of the first founders of realism.

No wonder that Shakespeare's works were high esteemed by giants of world literature as Milton, Goethe, Stendhal, and Pushkin. Speaking of dramatic art, Pushkin stressed that it should adhere to (твердо держаться)the laws of Shakespeare's popular drama.

Shakespeare's life. By an odd chance, England's greatest writer, William Shakespeare, was born on St. George's Day, 1564, and also died on the saint's day in 1616, at Stratfort - on- Avon, right in the heart of England and in the midst of the country. He was born in the house in Henly Street preserved as his birthplace. There is the very room where Shakespeare was born. Lots of people who had visited the house had written their names on the walls. It seems a wrong thing to do - although among the names are Walter Scott, Dickens and Thakeray. In one room is a little wooden desk, the very desk that Shakespeare sat in when he went to the grammar school in Stratford. In Stratford is the beautiful Holy Trinity Church where Shakespeare is buried. There's a bust of Shakespeare that was carved by a Dutch sculptor who lived near Shakespeare's Globe Theatre and must have seen Shakespeare many a time.

He was the son of prosperous tradesman of the town. His father, John Shakespeare, the son of a small farmer, settled in Stratford and entered into trade, a little later he became its High Bailiff or Mayor. Though there is no actual record of the fact, it is practically certain that, like other Stratford boys of his class, he went to the local Grammar School, where he was taught Latin and arithmetic. While (несмотря на то, что...) he never became a learned man, his few years at school gave him a sound education. Financial misfortunes presently overtook his father, and when he was about fourteen, he was taken from school that he might help the family by earning money on his own account (самостоятельно). Of the nature of his employment, however, we know nothing.

In his 19th year he married Anne Hathaway, a woman eight years his sinior, the daughter of well - to-do yoemen of the neighbouring village of Shottery. This marriage was hasty and ill-advised (неблагорозумный), and appears to have been unhappy. Three children were born to him: Susannah, and the twins, Judith and Hamnet, obviously after Hamlet, the hero of the tragedy written by Thomas Kid (1558? - 1594), a gifted playwright and predecessor of Shakespeare. T. Kyd's play was very popular in England long before Shakespeare wrote his tragedy. About a mile out of Stratford is Anne Hathaway's Cottage. This cottage is just as it was in Shakespeare's time. In that little house one feels as if Shakespeare has come walking down the narrow stairs.

A Few years after his marriage- roughly about 1587 - Shakespeare left his native town to seek his fortunes in London. Tradition says that Shakespeare had poached upon the lands of a certain Sir Thomas Lucy, a rich landlord and county magistrate. Once Shakespeare was caught by Lucy's keepers and severely punished. Shakespeare avenged (отомстил) himself by composing a satirical ballad; very soon it became so popular throughout the countryside that wherever Sir Thomas Lucy appeared he was met the strains (стихи) of the ballad. Sir Thomas was enraged (беситься) and redoubled(усугублять) his persecution to such a degree that Shakespeare was compelled (вынуждать) to leave Stratford and seek refuge in London. The proof of the authenticity of the above (упомянутый выше) tradition (легенда) may be found in Shakespeare's works . In his plays King Henry IV, and The Merry Wives of Windsor (Виндзорские кумушки) Shakespeare created a caricature of Sir Thomas Lucy in the character of Justice Shallow.

Shakespeare arrived in London and soon turned to the stage , and became first an actor, and then (though without ceasing to be an actor) a playwright. There is a story that when Shakespeare reached London he went straight to the theatre, determined to get work of some sort there; and that finding nothing better to do, he began by holding the horses of fine gentlemen who came to see the plays. It is said that a little later he was employed to call out the names of the actors and the pieces, and after a time was given a small part to act. But he soon showed that he could make himself most useful in changing old plays which the actors themselves could not do. Every old play that Shakespeare took in hand, he made into something different and far better. Then he began to write plays himself.

At this time the drama was gaining rapidly in popularity through the work of University Wits. When still at Stratford , Shakespeare became well acquainted with theatrical performances. Stratford was often visited by travelling companies of players. Shakespeare may have also seen miracle plays in the neighbouring town of Coventy, where these plays were still performed by guilds. It is quite probable that he visited the splendid pageants and other performances given in 1575 in honour of Queen Elisabeth at Kenilworth, a castle near Stratford.

As a poet and dramatist he won fame almost instantaneously. There is a great deal of evidence testifying to his great success. As early as in 1590 the poet Spenser who was considered to be the best judge on matters of art, praised Shakespeare in one of his poems. Several years later in the year 1598 Francis Meres, a writer and publisher, asserted: "As Plautus and Seneca are accounted the best for comedy and tragedy among the Latins, so Shakespeare, among the English is the most excellent in both kinds for stage".

Later on he became a shareholder in the two of the leading theatres of the time, the Globe and the Blackfriars , and purchased property in Stratford and London. The famous "Globe" theatre received the name from its sign, an effigy of Hercules who supported a globe bearing the motto of "Totus Mundus agit Histrionem" (All the world acts on the stage).

Shakespeare's activities as a dramatist, poet, actor and proprietor, lasted till the year 1612 when he retired from the stage and returned Stratford, where he had bought a house - the largest in the town - known as New Place. Now there is nothing left of it but a few bricks and the garden. The man who owned it, Mr. Gatrell, was bad - temtered , because so many people came to see the house, that he pulled it down (in 1758). While in London, Shakespeare often visited his native town, and took a great interest in its affairs. Thus in 1598 his townsmen approached him (обратились к нему) with a request to exercise (вoспользоваться правом) his influence in London and to soliscit for the exemption (освобождать) of Stratford from taxes and subsides. Many years afterwards, in 1614, accompanied by Dr. Hall, his son -in-law, he went to London to fight down the proposed enclosure of common lands at Stratford.

Shakespeare's biography proves conclusively (убедительно) that, like Chaucer, he was no dreamer, but a practical man of affairs. He reached London poor and friendless; he left it rich and respected; and his fortunes were the work of his own hand. Much light is thus thrown not only upon his personal character, but also upon his writings, in which great powers of creative imagination are combined with a wonderful feeling reality, sound commonsense, and alarge and varied familiarity with the world. Of the learning which is shown in his plays it is enough to say that it is not the learning of the trained and accurate scholar - of a Bacon or a Ben Jonson; but rather the wide miscelaneous knowledge of many things, which was naturally accumulated by an extraordinarily assimilative mind during years of contact with men and books. Translations gave him easy access to the treasures of ancient literature; the intellectual atmosphere of the environment in which he lived and worked was charged (наполнять) with new ideas, and was immensely stimulating; and Shakespeare was endowed with the happy faculty of turning everything that came to him to the best possible acсount (извлекать выгоду, пользу).

LECTURE 13. Shakespeare's Works.

During the twenty -two years of his literary work he produced 37 plays, two narrative poems and 154 sonnets.

It is difficult to ascertain the exact dates of the composition of his plays. Various allusions, however, political, cultural and such like which his play abound in (изобиловать), help to fix the date with greater or lesser exactitude. It should be born in mind that Shakespeare usually alluded (ссылаться, намекать) to contemporary events and that such hints found a ready response in the audience. Whatever foreign country or whatever historic era the dramatist depicted in their plays everybody understood that England was meant. Thus when Marcellus in Hamlet exclaimed " something is rotten in the state of Denmark" the public knew that players referred to England. In his works Shakespeare was always keenly alive to the events of contemporary life; this, together with his consummate (совершенный) craftsmanship made his plays extremely popular.

Shakespeare critics have agreed to subdivide his literary work into four periods, and by arranging the plays within these periods as nearly as possile in their oder of production, we are able to follow the evolution of his genius and art, and the remarkable changes which came over his thought and style.

(i) 1588 - 93. Period of early and, to a large extent, experimental work. Shakespeare's apprenticeship begins with the revision of old plays, such as the three parts of Henry VI and Titus Andronicus. To this period belong his first comedies, in which the influence of Lyly is pronounced (резко выражено) - Love's Labour's, The two Gentlemen of Verona, The Comedy of Errors, Midsummer constant - Night's Dream; his first effort in chronicle drama, distinctly reminiscent of (вызывать в памяти) Marlowe, Richard III; and a single very youthful tragedy, Romeo and Juliet. The work of this period as a whole is extremely slight in texture; the treatment of life in it is superficial; and the art is markedly[maktli - явно] immature (незрелый). The prominence (неровность) of rime in the dialogue, the stiffness(натянутость) of the blank verse, and the use of puns, conceits, and other affectations, are among its outstanding technical features.

(ii) 1594 - 1600. Period of the great comedies and chronicle plays. The works of this period are: Richard II, King John, The Merchant of Venice, Henry IV, Parts I and II, Henry V, The Taming of the Shrew, The Merry Wives of Winsor, Much ado about Nothing, As You Like It, and Twelfth Night.

Shakespeare now leaves behind him the influence of his early masters, his work becomes independent, and reveals (показывать, обнаруживать) immense development in power and technique. It is far more massive(солидный) in quality, the knowlege of the world and of the motives and passions of men which it everywhere exhibits is infinitely more profound. The characterisation and the humour have become deep and penetrative, and there is great growth in the weight of thought. Shakespeare has also outgrown the immaturities (незрелость) of his former style. The youthful crudeness грубость, незрелость) , extravagance, and strain (натянутость) are disappearing; the blank verse itself has lost its stifness, and is free and flexible.

(iii) 1608 -08. Period of the great tragedies, and of the sombre or bitter comedies. In this period all Shakespeare's powers - his dramatic power, his intellectual power and his power of expression - are at their highest. This is the time of supreme masterpieces. But what perhaps is most striking is the extraodinary change which has now occured in the entire spirit of his work. His attention is pre-occupied with the darker side of human experience, and his plays are made out (составлять) of those destructive passions which shake the foundations of the moral order. The sins and weaknesses of men form the staple (главный элемент) of his plots, and even when he writes what are theoretically distinguished as comedies, the emphasis is still thrown on evil and the tone is either grave or fierce. The plays of this period are: Julius Caesar, Hamlet, All's Well that Ends Well, Measure for Measure(Мера за меру), Troilus and Cressida, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth, Antony and Cleopatra, Coriolanus, and Timon of Athens.

(iv) 1608 -12. Period of the later comedies or Dramatic Romances. Again we note a sudden and singular change in the temper of Shakespeare's work. It is as if the heavy clouds which had long hung over the fictitious world of his imagination now roll away (рассеиваться), and the sky grows clear towards sunset. In these llast plays the grondwork is still furnished (cнабжать, представлять) by tragic passion, but the evil is no longer permitted to have its way, but is controlled and conquered by good. A very tender and gracious tone prevails in them throughout. At the same time they show very fully the decline of Shakespeare's dramatic powers. They are often careless in consruction and unsatisfactory in characterisation, while in style and versification ( cтихосложение) they will not bear comparison with work of the preceding ten years. Three plays entirely Shakespeare's belong to this period - Cymbeline, The Tempest, and The Winter's Tale. To these we have to add two which are only partly his - Pericles and Henry VIII. The latter was completed by his younger contemporary and friend, Fletcher.

To the much debated question how far Shakespeare's work is a revelation of his life it is impossible to give in brief a complete answer. We cannot accept the judgment of those who maintain that he was so entirely the dramatist that no trace of his own thoughts and feelings is to be found in it. On the contrary, it does tell us much about the man himself. But whether or not the changes which we mark in its successive stages were in any way the result of his own expariences - whether, for example, he wrote tragedies because his life was tragic and turned again to comedy when his spirit was once more restored to peace - we do no know.

Characteristics of Shakespeare's Works.

Taken as a whole, Shakespeare's plays constitute the greatest single body of work which any writer has contributed to English literature. Perhaps their most salient feature is their astonishing variety. Other men have surpassed (превосходить) him at this point or that; but no one has ever rivalled him in the range and versatility (многогранность) of his powers. He was (though not equally) at home in tragedy and comedy, and his genius took in innumerable aspects of both; he wast supreme, not only as a dramatist, but also as a poet to whome the worlds of high imagination and delicate fancy were alike open; and while not himself a very profound or very original thinker, he possessed in superlative degree the faculty of digesting thought into phraseology so memorable and so final that, as we know, he is the most often quoted of all English writers. He was almost entirely free from dogmatism of any kind, and his tolerance was as comprehensive as his outlook. In the vitality of his characterisation in particular ( в частности, в особенности) he is unparalleled ; no one else has created so many men and women whome we accept and treat not as figments( вымысел, плод воображения) of a poet's brain, but as absolutely and completely alive. His unique command over the resources of the language must also be noted; his vocabulary is computed (подсчитать) to run to some 15, 000 words, while that of Milton contains scarcely more than half that number.

The greatness of Shakespeare's work is apt to blind (легко делать слепым) critics to his limitations and defects, but these must, of course, be recognised. Broad as he was, he was essentially a man of his time, and while his plays are remarkable for their general truth to what is permanent in human nature, still his interpritation of human nature is that of an age in many respects very different from our own. He wrote hurriedly, and sighs of hasty and ill-considered production are often apparent. Designing (задумывая) his plays expressly for stage, and anxious(желая обеспечить) to secure their success under the actual conditions of stage representation, he was willing at times to sаcrifice consistency of character and the finer demands of art to the achievement of a telling (выразительный) theatrical effect. In his occasional coarseness he reflects the low taste of the 'groundlings' (невзыскательный зритель, зритель галерки) to whome he had to appeal. At places his psychology is hopelessly crude and unconvincing; his styly vicious (дефектный); his wit forced and poor; his tragic language bombastic. These and other faults will be conspicuous (заметный) to any one who reads him in the least critically. But they are small things after all in comparison with those paramount( первостепенной важности) qualities which have given him the first place among the world's dramatists.

Лекция 14. SHAKESPEAR’s TRAGEDIES.

HAMLET, PRINCE OF DENMARK.

Hamlet is considered to be the summit of Shakespeare's art. It was written in 1601 - 1602 and first published in 1603. Shakespeare took a certain story of Prince Amleth from old sources which can be traced to the 12th century (Danish Chronicle of Saxo Grammaticus). He, however, was not the first to dramatize Hamlet's history. In the eighties , a play that bore the same name gained popularity among the English public. Thomas Kyd is supposed to have been the author of this play. The text of Kyd's Hamlet is lost.

Under Shakespeare's pen the medieval story assumed new meaning and significance. Danish names could not hide from the spectators and readers the fact that it was England which the great writer described in his play. The whole tragedy permeated with the spirit of Shakespeare's own time. Hamlet is the profoundest expression of Shakespeare's humanism and his criticism of contemporary life.

The action of the tragedy is laid in medieval Denmark, in the castle of Elsinore. Gertrude, Queen of Denmark, widowed by sudden death of the King, whithin two months marries the new king, Claudius, brother of her husband.

The son of the late king, prince Hamlet, returnes home from the Unoversity of Wittenberg where he has received his education. The prince is an enlightened man, well versed (сведущий, хорошо осведомлен) in arts.

Hamlet is tormented by a secret suspicion abou the mysterious death of his father. One day Hamlet's friend Horatio and an officer Macellus tell the prince that the ghost of the deceased King appeared to them at midnight. Next night Hamlet himself talks to the ghost of his father who discloses to him that he has been treacherously murdered by his brother Claudius. Hamlet swears revenge on Claudius.

Since this moment and to the end of the tragedy the action is a ceaseless and ever increasing struggle between Hamlet and Claudius. Tu dull (притупить) Claudius's vigilance and to penetrate into his plots, Hamlet pretends to have gone mad. The King is suspicious and resorts to various ruses to find out Hamlet's intentions. He summons Guildenstern and Rosencrantz, Hamlet's university mates, and oders them to spy on Hamlet. But Hamlet immediately exposes his false friends. The King also lends an attentive ear (выслушать) to Polonius, an old courtier, who tries to assure him that Hamlet's distraction results from his love for Ophelia, Polonius's beautiful daughter. Indeed, Hamlet entertains (питать) a deep affection for Ophelia, but he considers her too frail (хрупкий, морально неустойчивый)to be taken into confidence. Therefore, while talking to her, he stimulates rudeness, consistent (согласующуюся) with feigned (притворный) insanity (безумие).

To expose Claudius Hamlet thinks of a plan: a group of actors are engaged to perform a play which recalls his father's murder. Hamlet becomes convinced of the King's guilty conscience when Claudius appears проявлять deeply affected задетый, тронутый by the performance and leaves the hall before the play is ended. To get rid of Hamlet the King sends him off to England accompanied by Guildestern and Rosencrantz. Before depature Hamlet's visits his mother and in a sharp tone expresses his indignation at her attitude towards his father's memory. In the midst of the conversation Hamlet suddenly becomes aware that he is being overheard from behind the arras (гобелены) of the Queen's closet. Thinking it to be the King, he stabs at and kills the eavesdropper who turns out to be Polonius.

While at sea, Hamlet grows suspicious of Guildenstern and Rosencrantz . He secretly visits their cabin and discovers a letter in which King Claudius commissions (поручать) his English vassals to put the Prince to death. The treacherous friends are hoisted with their own petard (ФЕ попасть в собственную ловушку) when Hamlet writes and seals with his own royal seal another order commanding to execute Guildenstern and Rosencrantz.

Ophelia, thinking herself deserted (покинутый) by the Prince, now learns that her father has died by the hand of her beloved. The news is too much fot her: she goes mad and, then, is accidentally drowned in a stream.

Hamlet meanwhile escapes from the ship and returns to Denmark just at the time of Ophelia's funeral. Hamlet deeply shocked by the tragic news.

Ophelia's brother Laertes vows to avenge(отомстить) the death of his sister and father. Сlaudius conspires with Laertes to do away with (разделаться, уничтожить) Hamlet. Laertes is to challenge Hamlet to a friendly duel and kill him with a poisoned rapier. All the Court was present at this match. At first Laertes only plays with Hamlet and allowed him to gain some advantage. But soon Laertes, growing angry , made a deadly stroke at Hamlet with his poisoned weapon. In anger, not knowing the truth of treachery, Hamlet exchanges in the fight his own weapon for Laertes' poisoned one. So Laertes was justly caught in his own treachery. At this moment the Queen cried out that she was poisoned. She had accidently drunk out of a bowl which the King had prepared for Hamlet. He had forgotten to warn the Queen about this bowl. She immediately died. Laerters, feeling his life going away with the wound, confessed of all he had done. Then, begging Hamlet's forgiveness he died.

When Hamlet felt that his life was going away, he turnes on his uncle and puches the point of the sword to his heart. Thus the promise to his father's spirit was fulfilled. Hamlet's friend Horatio wanted to kill himself, but Hamlet begged him to live and tell the true story to the world. Horatio promised.

Hamlet, Prince of Denmark is probably the greatest of all plays ever written in English language . Books devited to the study of Hamlet could fill a whole library Among the greatest writers and thinkers of the past there are hardly any who who have not expressed their admiration for this work of a rare genius. And no wonder, for Hamlet contains the most important message of all art - the message of love for mankind, the call to an active struggle for a better future, for the happiness of all people, for the total annihilation of all tyrants and opressors.

Another great tragedy of Shakespeare is Othello, the Moor of Venice (1604).

Certain elements of the plot were borrowed by Shakespeare from an Italian source, where the Moor of Venice is depicted as a rather primitive soldier whose dominating passion was jealousy. Shakespeare's Othello is quite different. Othello is a great man and a great warrior, and, as many of the really great man, he is too noble-minded to mistrust those whom he loves. As our great Russian poet A.S. Pushkin said: "Othelo is not jealous by nature, on the contrary, he is trustful". He values integrity(чистота), sincerity and loftiness (возвышенность ума)of mind above all other human qualities, and he loves and cherishes Desdemona so dearly just(именно) because he finds her to be the very(истинный, настоящий) embodimentof these high qualities . All these together with her youth and beauty, make her his ideal of a woman, and her love - the greatest reward for the toils(тяжелый труд) and hardships of his long and lonesome life . And though his skin is dark and his visage (лицо) covered with ugly scars, he is the bearer of a great moral beauty, and his heart is as true as steel and as pure as gold. Jago, Othello's lieutenant, who makes Othello believe that Desdemona is untrue to him, this "honest" Jago, "good" Jago, as Othello calls him, is the impersonation of the dark powers that hate everything that is true great and noble. Jago also a great artistic generalization of envy, selfishness and utter (крайний, абсолютный)depravity(порочность), concealed by good manners and a show of "noble intentions". If anybody in tragedy is really jealous, it is Jago. He is jealous of Othelo's greatness, of Desdemona's purity and beauty, and, at last, he is jealous of his own wife, Emilia, for he nourishes certain black suspicions concerning her and Othello. When Othello kills Desdemona, he does it not out of jealosy, but - of defiling (осквернять) the noblest ideals of life. But when Jago kills Emily, he does it out of sheer spite(злоба) and jealousy.

The tragedy of Othello shows that the best and loftiest human qualities may turn into a sourse of weakness if they are not quarded by a keen and vigilant(бдительный) mind, capable of discriminating between real and false virtues.

King Lear (1605), Shakespeare's next work, stands side by side with Hamlet as one of the world's greatest tragedies. Here Shakespeare draws upon(черпать, брать) a legend referring to the history of ancient Britain, but he transplants the characters into his own times and sets and solves the burning problems of his days. And though the tragedy upholds the idea of national unity under one king, still it shows the drawbacks(отрицательные стороны) of absolute monarchy, for it is at the time when King Lear held unchallenged (неоспоримый) power in the whole of the country, that he developed such a profound faith in his own greatness and superiority that he became blindfolded as to the real state of affairs in the kingdom and even in his own family. The result of this "absolute" belief in the infallibility of an absolute monarch is the impoverishments(обнищание) of the whole country, the misery of the poor wretches", i. e. toiling people (труженики). Here , as elsewhere in his plays, Shakespeare maintains the idea that king, however great he might be, is amenable(ответственный) to his people. If, in one way or another, he betrays the people's trust, history will condemn him.

Lear, King of Britain, has three daughters - Goneril and Regan, the wives of noblemen, and Cordelia, a young maid courted by the King of France and the Duke of Burgundy. Lear feeling the weight of years and the burdens of state too much for him, decides to divide his kingdom among his three daughters, retaining himself only the title of King and a hundred knights for his attendance. When Regan and Goneril are asked by their father how much they love him, the two sisters assure him with fine words and flattery that he is dearer to them than anything or anybody in the world.

Then he puts the question to Cordelia, who answers that she loves her father according to her duty, neither more nor less, and if she marries she will give her future e husband half of her affection and care. Lear enraged with Cordelia sincere answer, disinherits her her and divides his kingdom between the two elder daughters empowering their their husbands to rule over the country. The Earl of Kent, Lear's most faithful vassal, dares to raise his voice in behalf of Cordelia, and tells the king he was wrong in his interpritation of Cordelia's wods. This intercession further angers Lear who banishes the Earl from Britain forever. The Duke of Burgundy, learning of Cordelia's loss of heritage withdraws his suit. The King of France marries her and they both live for that country. Lear with his hundred knights goes to stay at Gineril's castle. Included in his retinue (свита) are his new servant Caius (who is really the Earl of Kent in disguise) and his favourite jester.Goneril's true character now comes to to the surface. Her attitude towards her aged parent becomes so intolerable that after high words with his daughter, Lear with his jester and one remaining knight starts out for Regan's castle. There they meet with no better reception. Regan , actuated (возбуждать, приводить в действие) by her sister's wicked letters, orders Caius to be put in the stocks, and shut the door on her father. At this juncture Gonerial arrives at Regan's castle. She takes the side of Regan, and the two sisters make the poor old man a target for their venom. Their jeers and insults nearly break Lear's heart and he immediately leaves the castle. Lear's faithful knight is despatched as a messenger to inform Cordelia of her sister's infamous behaviour and to ask her to come with an army to his assistence. Banished by his daughters, Lear wanders all night amidst storm and driving rain over a lonely heath, accompanied by his jester and Caius. The scene of a stormy night on the moors is the culmination of Lear's tragedy, a moment when great changes are wrought in the soul and mind of the former king, when he becomes "man" and not "king". His words addressed to the poor and wretched are full of profoundest sympathy for them and at the same time protest against the the inequality that reigns in the country:

"... Poor naked wretched, wheresoe'er you are,

That bide the pelting of this pitiless storm,

How shall your houseless heads and unfed sides,

Your loop'd and widow'd raggedness, defend you

From seasons such as these? O, I have ta'en

Too little care of this! Take physic pomp;

Expose thyself to feel what wretches feel;

That thou mayst the superflux to them,

And show the heavens more just."

When Cordelia arrives with her army, she finds her father mad. Cordelia nurses Lear tenderly and becomes almost himself again. His happiness, however, is short-lived. There is a great battle and the French Army is put to rout [ au](разгромить). Cordelia and Lear are made prisoners.

A sharp dispute arises in the victorious camp between two sisters. One of the causes of the quarrel is Edmund, the natural son of Earl of Gloster. This ruthless and artfull adventurer bears a great likeness to Jago. He has won the love of both sisters and set them against each other hoping that thus he could rid himself of one of them, and after that kill the husband of the remaining sister, marry her, and become king of England.

But Edmund is mortally wounded in a combat, anf in a moment of frenzy Goneril murders Regan by poising her, and then seized with remorse, commits suicide.

Cordelia and Lear's jester go to the scaffold(эшафот) by order of Edmund. King Lear finally finally succumbs(не выдержать, быть побежденным) under the succession of horrors (непрерывная цепь ужасов)which have befallen (приключаться)him and dies mourned by his faithful Kent who is ready to follow his master to the grave.

In King Lear Shakespeare raises his voice against the unjust the corrupting influence of gold, against social abuses and mismanagement that reigned in England .

LECTURE 36 Shakespar’s HISTORIES

It is in his Histories that Shakespeare comes totally within the sphere of real of life. Shakespear's interest in the history of his country was one of the manifistations of the patriotic feelings of the common people of England and of the rise of their national consciousness in the latter half of the 16 th century.

Kyd, Green and Marlowe had written historical plays before Shakespeare, but no one before him had expressed the national feelings of the people with such a force and vividness as he did. Like his predecessors , Shakespeare drew abundant material for his historical plays from the then popular Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland compiled by Raphael Holinshed and published in 1578. Holinshed's Chronicles are an extensive collections f myths, traditions, chronicles and historical essays of earlier authors, Thomas Moor included. Though Holinshed's own contributions were very meagre (ограниченный, бедный содержанием), the comprehensivness of his work made it valuable source of information. In many passages of his Histories Shakespeare quotes Holinshed word for word. But in all ather respects Shakespeare's Histories greatly differ both from Holinshed's Chronicles and from the Histories of Shakespeare's predecessors.

In his Histories Shakespeare gives a broad panorama of English life. Scenes of private and domestic life alternate with stirring and heroic episodes of war and political intrigues. The principal idea of his historical plays is the necessity of the consolidation of the country under one king. Shakespeare's Histories are political plays and the author's predilections stands out( проявлять, выступать) in strong relief (рельеф).

Like the majority of humanists of his time Shakespeare believed in a wise and humane king who would live to serve his country. But with the only exception of Henry V, Shakespeare's treatment of real English kings is extremely critical.

Thus he condemns Richard II for his vanity, political blindness and inability to subdue the feudal lords (King Richard II, 1595). He created an ominous (зловещий) image of Richard III who, though he was an able and strong- willed monarch, unlike Rochard II, came to power through a series of horrible crimes and turned his country into a dungeon(темница) (King Richard III, 1592).

More complicated is the image of Henry IV. One the one hand, he is glorified by Shakespeare, for he suppresses the rebellion of feudal lords and establishes peace in the country. On the other hand , Henry IV is the inderect cause of Richard II's death and the treacherous arrest of the rebels after the truce(перемирие).

In Shakespeare's Histories there is only one ideal king - Henry V, though his real prototype little differed from other kings. Nevertheless for English patriots of that time his name was assosiated with the military victories of England in the Hundred Year's War and became a symbol of England 's glory.

Shakespeare shows Henry not only as a king, but also as a man. In his youth prince Henry sow his wild oats(овес) and makes marry in the company of the great life- lover Falstaff. At this perio of time Henry came into contact with all sorts and cinditions of men. Henry studies life , studies the people of his country, and this proves to be a very good school for the future king.

A gallery of characters pass before us in Shakespeare's Histories: rich and poor, great and humble, good and evel. We leran not only of kings and lords, but also of common people, artisans, ostlers, servants, beggars. In many cases it is common men that are the mouthpieces of Shakespeare' s own views, the bearers of wisdom, criticism and censure. Such a bearer of the people's wisdom is the gardener from King Richard II. He teaches a great leasson of statesmanship(искусство управлять государством) when he says to his assistant:

... Cut off the heads of too-fast-growing sprays,

They look too lofty in our common wealth;

All must be even in our government.

You thus employed, I will go root away

The noisme (нездоровый) weeds that without profit suck

The soil's fertility from wholesome flowers.

and his assistant adds:

... our sea-walled garden, the whole land,

Is full of weeds; her fairest flowers chok'd up(засорять),

Her fruit - trees all unprun'd (неподрезаны), her - hedges ruin'd,

Her knots disorder'd, and her whole some herbs

Swarming with caterpillars ...

Thus simple toiling men raise their voice against privileged classes, parasitism and feudal anarchy.

Lecture 16. SHAKESPEAR’s LATER COMEDIES

First of all, there is one common feature in the last three comedies of Shakespeare, i.e. in Cymbeline (1609), The Winter's Tale (1610), and The Tempest (1612). In the beggining, the forces of evil take upper hand (ФЕ господствовать, иметь превосходство) and establish themselves in power. Then, much later the "Great healer" - Time - restores to honour or power those who had been unjustly deprived of their rights and position. This takes place without any obvious struggle, by means of peaceful reconcilition and owing to(быть обязанным) miraculous changes wrought in the souls of the former (бывший) tyrants and usurpers.

The best play of this period is The Tempest.

Prospero, the former Duke of Milan, who was deposed (cвергнут) by his brother Antonio, put aboard a ship together with his baby-daughter Miranda, and then left to drift over the waves without sail or rudder (руль), resorted to (обращаться за помощью) magic arts which he had been studying all his life, and brought the ship safely to alonely island. The island was inhabited by an ugly monster Caliban who symbolizes the wild elements of nature. Caliban's mother, the witch Sycorax , who had died not long before Prospero's arrival, had imprisoned the kind spirits of island in the trunks of trees. Prospero freed them and they, together with Caliban, who was made to do all kind of rude work , served the new lord of the island. Prospero's chief assistant was Ariel, the spirit of the air.

The play begins when Antonio, together with Alonso, the king of Naples and young Ferdinando, the latter's son, passes near the island on board a ship. With the help of Ariel, Prospero raises a tempest on the sea, and crew and passengers, fearing a shipwreck, jump overboard and are cast ashore. Ferdinando sees Mirando and they fall in love with each other. Antonio is awestricken (охваченный благоговейным страхом) by miraculous visions, created by Prospero for the purpose of awakening and transforming his concience, and repents his cruel deeds. On meeting Prospero, he gives up his claims to the dukedome, while Alonso consents (позволять)to his son's marrying Miranda, and they all return to Italy to llive there happily.

The Tempest glorifies the eventual (возможный, могущий случиться) triumph of good over evil , the great discoveries, made at that time by scientists, and aspecially, by travellers. There are many elements of allegory and fairy-tale in The Tempest, but, like other works od Shakespeare, it is an artistic expression of Shakespeare's belief in the future happiness of mankind. Its optimistic spirit is best perceived in Miranda's words: O, wonder!

How many beautiful creatures are there here.

How beautiful mankind is! O brave new world,

That has such people in't.

Сharacteristics of Shakespeare's Works

Shakespeare's non-dramatic poetry consists of two narrative poems, Venus and Adonis and Lucrece, in both of which the classicism of the age is very marked, and a sequence of of 154 sonnets, the first 126 addressed to a man, the remainder addressed or referred to a woman. Theses sonnets have given rise [z](вызывать ч-л, давать начало)to endless discussion, and everything about them remains obscure. They purport to record a passionate history of disastrous love and broken friendship, but we cannot even be sure whether they deal with real or with imaginary things. The only certainty is that they contain

Lecture 17 THE 17TH CENTURY

ENGLISH LITERATURE OF REVOLUTION AND RESTORATION

PURITANISM

John Milton, John Dryden, John Bunyan

The 17th century was one of the most tempestuous periods in English history. The English bourgeois revolution was the most significant social event in England of the 17th century.

The antagonism between the monarchy of Charles I, who ascended the throne in 1625, and the majority in Parliament reached a breaking point.

Hoping to crush the opposition of the bourgeoisie, Charles dissolved Parliament but was again compelled to call it in 1640. This new Parliament lasted up to 1653 and is known in history as the Long Parliament.

In 1642, the king left the capital and began mustering troops to contend in arms against the unruly parliament. The civil war lasted from 1642 till 1649 when the monarchists were defeated by the revolutionary army headed by Oliver Cromwell (1599 -1658). King Charles I was taken prisoner and put to death by order of the High Court of Justice, a Parliamentary body. England had been proclaimed a republic (the Commonwealth). It is a significant fact that the revolution was headed by the bourgeois class, the greater part of which were adherents of the religious doctrine of Puritanism. Puritans - a name which appears to have originated about the year of Shakespeare's birth or shortly after and was at first used in derision [di'riZen] (насмешка), though it was soon accepted as a mere descriptive term. The fast-growing flippancy (легкомысленность) and profligacy of the upper classes greatly increased its moral and social influence. Puritan's keen sense of the supremacy of God as the ruler of rulers, and of the prerogatives of the individual conscience, made the Puritans intolerant of earthly tyranny in any form. After a stormy period of civil war, it triumphed with the triumph of Oliver Cromwell, and during the few years of the Commonwealth it was supreme. The influence of Puritanism upon the tone and temper of English life and thought was profound. The spirit which it introduced was fine and noble, but it was hard and stern. We admire the Puritan's integrity and uprightness; but we deplore(порицать) his fanatism, moroseness, and the narrowness of his outlook and sympathies. He was an intense and God - fearing, but illiberal and unreasonable man. To the extent of its power, Puritanism destroyed humane culture, and sought to confine literature within the circumscribed field of its own particular interests. While fatal to art it was thus almost fatal to literature. It was only here and there that a writer arose who was able to absorb all its strength while transcending its limitations. This was emphatically the case with Milton, the greatest product of Puritanism in English literature, in whose genius and work, however, the moral and religious influences of Puritanism are combined with the great culture of the Renaissance.

In 1653 Oliver Cromvell imposed a military dictatorship on the country; after his death the monarchy was again restored (1660). Charles II, son of the executed king, ascended the throne. The reasons that brought about the Restoration are clear enough: the people were dissatisfied with the results of the revolution which did not rid them of poverty and misery; the ruling classes realized the need of vigorous measures , a "strong hand" which would be able to keep the people in submission. Although the Stuarts tried their best to retain power they were unable to restore the former order of life and the so-called "Glorious revolution" of 1688 ended their rule and established a constitutional monarchy based on a compromise between the bourgeoisie and the landed nobility.

The main factors influencing English literature of the 17th century were the strifle of the bourgeoisie and aristocracy for power, the growth of revolutionary ideology among the masses and the interaction of Renaissance and puritan trends in art and philosophy.

English literature of the 17th century reflects the events of the pre-revolutionary and post-revolutionary periods. These ideas can be most effectively traced in the works of the prominent writers of the time: John Milton, John Bunyan, John Dryden.

Pre-revolution and revolution literature include works reflecting the rising moment directed against monarchy. The most prominents figures in the literary field were Ben Jonson and young Milton. The pamphletes of John Milton and Gerard Winstanley and others appear at this time and gain great popularity.

The restoration period (the sixties and seventies) is marked by the appearance of such remarkable works as John Milton's epic poems and The Pilgrim's Progress by John Bunyan (1628 - 1688). Milton and Bunyan continued to defend in their works the ideas of struggle and Revolution, exposing at the same time the reactionary forces that reigned in their country. In Bynuan's great allegorical novel The Pilgrim's Progress the writer describes the ordeals of the hero, named Christian . The greatest ordeal awaits high-minded Christian in the town of Vanity, where he is seized , beaten and brought to trial. At the fair of the town - Vanity Fair one could buy everything "houses, lands, trades, places, honours, preferments , titles, countries, kingdoms, lusts, pleasures ... wives, husbands, children, masters, servants, lives, blood, bodies, souls, silver, gold, pearls, precious stones, and what not." The Pilgrim's Progress is a scathing (едкая) satire on the customs and manners of Restoration.

But Restoration created a literature of its own, that was often witty and clever, but on the whole immoral and cynical. The most popular genre was that of comedy whose chief aim was to entertain the licentious (безнравственный) aristocrats. John Dryden (1631 -1700), critic, poet and playwright was the most distinguished literary figure of that time.

Lecture 18. Milton. Dryden and Bunyan

John Milton (1608 - 1674). John Milton was born in the family of a London scrivener (нотариус). His father being a man of much culture himself, did all he could to give his son good education at St Paul's school, and afterwards at Cambridge . Having taken his degree of Master of Arts in 1632, Milton settled at Horton, Buchinghamshire, where his father had bought a small country seat. His systematic studies did not, however, close with the close of his college course. He decided to give himself up ( придаваться) entirely to self- culture and poetry. Fortunally his father was in a financial position to further (поддерживать) his wishes. While a boy at school, as he himself tells , his books had kept him out of bed till midnight; at the university he had shown the same untiring devotion to learning; and now during six years of almost uninterrrupted seclusion (уединение) he was able to pursue his studious way undisturbed. Building upon the firm foundation s he had already laid, Milton thus became a very great scholar. This point must be carefully marked, not only because in the breadth and accuracy of his erudition he stands head and shoulders above all English other poets, but also because his learning everywhere nourishes and interpenetrates his poetic work.

Between the years 1632 and 1638, he determined to broaden his views by travel. He journeyed to France, Italy and Switzeland. While in Florence, he met Galileo, who was living the rest of his days in misery, broken down by the tortures of the Inquisition. This meeting left a deep impression on Milton. Even after many years he alludes to Galileo twice in his poem, Paradise Lost.

The troubled state of affairs in England in connection with the outbreak of the Civil War brought Milton back home in 1639.

On his return to London, Milton opposed the monarchic party and gave all his energies to the writing of pamphlets . His principal pamphlets are: Areopagitica, or Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing (1644), a bold attack on the censorship of the press; Eikonoclastes (1649), a pamphlet in which the author justified the execution of Charles I, Defense for the English People (Защита английского народа)(1650) - a defense of Commonwealth and Revolution.

In 1643 he married Mary Powell, the young daughter of a Royalist, but the union proved a most unhappy one.

In 1649 Milton was made Latin, or foreign Secretary of the new Republic government, and the next ten years of his life were taken up with politics and official work.

Early in 1653 a terrible calamity overtook him; his sight, which had long been failing, was now ruined entirely by over - stress of work, and he became totally blind. Three years later he married again , but his wife, Catherine Woodcock , died within fifteen months.

On the restoration of the monarchy, Milton was arrested and deprived of his office and, consequently, of his livelihood. Two of his books were publicly burnt by the hangman; Only his extremely poor state of health saved him from being executed, soon he was released and permitted to drop into political obscurity. He was now poor and lonely as well as blind; he felt bitterly the failure of the cause for which he had toiled so hard and sacrificed so much; and though his third wife, Elizabeth Minshall, brought comfort to his declining years, he was greatly distresses by the unfilial conduct of his daughters by his first marriage .

He left London and settled in a little cottage where he resumed work on his epic. Now he turned back upon the ambitious poetical designs which he had cherished many years before and had long set aside at the call of practical duty . There he completed Paradise Lost (1667) and composed Paradise Regained and the drama Samson Agonistes (1671).

In his Paradise Lost Milton set forth the revolt of Satan against God, the war in heaven, the fall of the rebel angels, the creation of the world and man, the temptation of Eve and Adam, and their expulsion from Edem. Yet, while his central purpose was to show how "man's first disobedience" brought sin and death in its train (в результате), it is characteristic of him that he does not close on the note of evil triumphant, but prophetically introduces the divine work of redemption. Though in this way he had apparently completed his original scheme, however, he was afterwards led to add a sequel in four books the substance of which was provided by the temptation of Christ in the wildlerness; but, while not without its occasional passages of sublimity and of tenderness, Paradise Regained seems to most modern readers a very slight thing beside its gigantic predecessor. The "dramatic poem" Samson Agonistes ( Samson the Wrestler) crowns the labours of these closing years. In this as in Paradise Lost, Milton applies the forms of classic art to the treatment( обработка) of a biblical subject, for the work is fashioned (моделировать) strictly upon the principles of Greek tragedy, while the matter is, of course, derived from the fate of Samson among the Philistines. The subject had been in Milton's thought many years before . He returned to it now in all probability (по всей вероятности) because he saw in the hero an image both of himself, blind, disappointed, and surrounded by enemies, and of the Puritan cause, overwhelmed (поражать) by the might of its foes.

Surrounded by a few of devoted friends, John Milton, the great English poet, died on November 8, 1674.

In his poetic art Milton blends the traditions of Renaissance with the ideas of puritanism. That is why Milton's poetry is in many respects so contradictory and complex. Paradise Lost is written as an exposition of his theology. But if as a thinker and moralist he belonged completely to Puritanism, as an artist he had not ceased to belong to the Renaissance; poem everywhere shows how fondly in the blindness and loneliness of his age , he recalled the wide secular studies of his happy earlier days. Even now , then, the Puritan in Milton had not killed the humanist.

Lecture 19 Dryden's Life.

John Dryden was born at Aldwinkle All Saints, Northamptonshore, 1631; was educated at Westminster and Trinity College, Cambridge, and settled in London about 1637. Soon after this he wrote his first poems of any importance , the Heroic Stanzas on the Death of Oliver Cromvell (1639), and (indicative of a rapid change of front) Astraea Redux, in celebration of the "happy restoration" of Charles II. In 1663 he began to work for the stage, which was then the only profitable field for anyone who had to depend for his livelihood upon his pen; and for some fifteen years playwriting continued to be his chief occupation. In 1670 he was made poet laureate , and 1681 opened a new chapter in his career with the publication of the first of his great satires in verse, Absalom and Achitophel. This was followed by other work of the same character, and later by two theological poems, Religio Laici or a Layman's Faith(Верa мирянина) (1682), a defence of the Church of England, and The Hind and the Panther (1687), an elaborate argument in favour of Roman Catholicism, to which in the meantime he had been converted. In consequence of this change of religion the revolution of 1688 came upon him as a heavy blow. He lost his position of poet laureate, and, all hopes of official recognition now being destroyed, devoted himself for his remaining years to literature with praiseworthy courage and industry. He prodused five more plays , translations of Juvenal, Persius, and Vergil , and a volume of Fables (or paraphrases from Homer, Ovid, Boccaccio, and Chaucer). These were published in November, 1699. Six month later - in May, 1700 - he died.

Dryden's Critical Work.

The epoc of Restoration saw the real beginnings of modern criticism; though, there had already been a certain amount of criticism in England, it was now for the first time that people addressed themselves systematically to study of the principles and laws of literature. In this growth of criticism we have illustration of the spirit of an age which was far stronger on the side of analysis than on that of imagination, and in which the intellectual predominated over creative powers; and Dryden is also first great English critic.In the course of his criticism he takes up and discusses nearly all the topics which were of interest to the literary world of his time - the forms and methods of the drama; the relations of art and nature; the qualities of the great writers of Greece and Rome; and so on. On the whole, his best criticism is to be found in the Essay of Dramatic Poesy, in which he considers the respective principles and merits of the three chief types of drama - the classical drama of the Greeks and Romans, the neo-classical drama of the French, and the romantic drama of the English, and , among other matters, undertakes to justify the use of rime in place of blank verse on the stage . Dryden often writes hastily and is habitually careless in detail; and as in general he accepted the limitations and prejudices of his age, a good deal of his criticism , while historically important, has but slight permanent value. At the same time, his sagacity and penetration are indeed remarkable; while his prose style is characterised by clearness , vigour and wonderful felicity of phrasing (умение находить удачные фразы).

Bunyan.

John Bunyan (1628 -88). The son of a tinker, whose trade he himself afterwards followed, Bunyan was born at Elstow , Bedfordshire; fought for a time in the civil war, though on which side is uncertain; was converted; married early; and in 1655 began to preach on village greens. Continuing the practice after the Restoration , he was soon convicted as " a common upholder of several unlawful meetings and conventicles ( cekтанское моление)", and committed to the Bedford jail, where he remained twelve years. His autobiographical Grace Abounding was the work of his captivity; the first part of The Pilgrim's Progress (Путь паломника)belоngs to a second imprisonment of six months in 1675. Meanwhile he had obtained a licence to preach , and had become the regular minister of the Baptist congregation at Bedford. In his later years he was also famous as a preacher in London. It was on a visit to London that he died; and he was buried in the old Dissenters' Burial Ground at Bunhill Fields, where Defoe and Isaac Watts were afterwards to be laid to rest. Bunyan wrote much; but his four great works are Grace of Abounding (1660), The Pilgrim's Progress (1678-84), The Life and death of Mr. Badman (1680), and The Holy War (1682). There are many things about Bunyan which make him a very important figure in literary history. He is the only man in English literature who has ever has ever succeeded in writing a long prose allegory and in filling it throughtout (повсюду) , without any sacrifice of the symbolism, with the absorbing interest of a real human story. The combined vividness and plainness of his writing is another remarkable feature of his work. Bunyan was not an educated man; he knew nothing of the classics; nothing about theory of literature ; little or nothing, even about English Literature. But he was endowed by nature with a genius for style. We must not overlook Bunyan's position in the evolution of English prose fiction. His The Pilgrim' s Progress for its dramatic power, characters, the grasp of ordinary life must, at least, be regarded as a forerunner of the novel.

LECTURE 20

ENGLISH LITERATURE IN THE 18th CENTURY

Enlightenment

. The 18th century is known un the history of Eurioean countries as the period pf Enlightement. The Enlightenment defended the interest of the common people – craftsmen, tradesmen, peasants. The central prolem of the Enlightenment ideology was that of man an his nature.

The Enlighteners believed in reason as well as in mn’s inborn goodness. Vice in people, they thought, was due to the miserable living conditios which could be changed by force of reason. They considered in their duty to enlighten people to help them see the roots of evil. The Enlighteners also believed in the powerful educational value of art. The English Enlighteners were not unanimous in their views. Some of them spoke in defence of the existing order, considering that a few reforms were enough to improve it. These were: Daniel Defoe, Alexander Pope and Samuel Richardson.

The other group included the writers who openly protested against the social order. They defended the interests of exploited masses. They were: Jonathan Swift, Henry Fielding, Oliver Goldsmith, Richard Seridan, Robert Berns.

F. Pope (1688-1744).

Alexander Pope was born in London. His father pprosperious linen-draper, was a catholic, and because of his religion Pope was expelld from public schoos and universities. He picked up most of his knowledge from books and though he read much he never became an accurate scholar.

Pope’s poetic career began with “Four Pastorals” published in 1709. These were short poems on spring, summer, autumn and winter, closely fashioned on Virgil. His “Essay on Criticism” contained Pope’s ethetic views.

A mock-heroic poem “The rape of the Lock” which appeard in 1712 enjoyed instant success. Pope’s next work was the translation of the “Illiad”, which brought him fame and established financial positions. Pope translated Homer in the elegant artificial language of his age and gave the reading public what it wanted – a readable version of the Greek poem in accordance with the taste of time.

After the “Illiad” Pope translated the Odyssey. After the publication of his Homer, as the two poems are together popularly ca;;ed, Pope wrote satiric poetry. In 1728 he published satire on the “dunces” – the bad poets – called the Dunciad. In “Dunciad Pope ridiculed his literary opponents. The theme of the poem is the most important theme f the Enlighten,ent – the fight of the reason against ignorance and barbarity. It is the fiercest and the finest of Pope’s satires. Jne of the best known and most quoted of his works is “The Essay on Man” . The purpose of the essay is to justify the xiting state o things.

In his lifetime Pope was immensely popular. Many foreughn writers as well as the majoity of English poets looked to him as their model. But later at the end of the 18 century yuong romantic poets, Wordsworth and Coleridge, criticized Pope’s poetry for its rationalism and lack of imagination.

LECTURE 21 Daniel Defoe

Daniel Defoe is regarded as the founder of realistic novel in English Literature. Defoe ‘s life was compllicated and adventurous. He was the son of a wealthy London butcher and received a good education. His father being puritan wanted his son to became a priest. He preferred, however, the life of a merchant He travelled in Spain. Germany, France and Italy on business. Ye spoke half a dozen languages and was a man of wide learning. From 1694 Defoe took an active part in public affairs. His energy enabled him to combine the life of a man of action with that of a writer. He was the earliest literary journalist in England. He wrote political pamphlets on any subject and every event. He was a man of an active and original mind, an independent and courageous thinker who dealt with social questions.

In his interesting “Essay on Projects” (1689) Defoe suggested all kinds of reforms in different spheres of social life: to establish saing –banks, to construct railways, to give higher education to women, to protect seamen etc.

In 1702 Defoe published a satirial pamphlet written in support of protestants. In the pamphlet “The shortest day with the dissenters” he defended the freedom of religious belief. He was punished for this and had stand for three days in the pillory (позорный столб). The pillory sentence turned to his triumph.

After producing politial pamphlets Defoe turned to writing novels. He came to it when he was nearly sixty. His first book of fiction was “Robinson Crusoe”. Its success encouraged Defoe. There followed a series of other novels: Captain Singleton, Moll Flanders, Colonel Jacque, Roxana. Daniel Defoe died in London in 1731 in poverty.

He left behind him more than three hundred published works, and the reputation of being th”First English Journalist”. Also with his imaginative account of the adventures of robinon Crusoe, he was become regarded as the forerunner of the great English novelist.

LECTURE 22

Jonathan Swift (1667- 1745)

The greaest of th prose satirists of the age of the Enlightenment was Jonathan Swift. His bitter satire was aimed at the policy of the Englis towards Ireland.

He was born in Dublin, but he came from an English family. His father died before he was born. The boy saw little of his mother’s care: she had to go back to her native town. He was supportfd by his uncle and from his very boyhood he learned how miserable it was to be depended on the charity of relatives. He was educated at Kilkenny school in Dublin University, Trinity College, to beome a clergyman. At school he was fond of history, literature and languages.

After graduating from school he went to London and became private secretary to sir William Temple who was a retired statesman and a writer. Swift improved his education at sir Willim’s library and in 1692 he took his master of Art degree at Oxford. He got a place of vicar in Ireland and worked there for a year and a half. He wrote much and burned most of what he wrote. Soon he grew tired of the lonely life in Ireland and was glad to accept Sir William Temple’s proposal for his return to him. Swift lived and worked there untill Temple’s death in 1699.

The satire “The Battle of the books” (1697) marked the beginning of Swift’s literary career. It depicts a war between books of modern and ancient authors. The book is an allegory and reflects the literary discussion of the time.

Swift’s first success was “A Battle of a Tub” (1704), a biting satire on religion. In the introductiob to it the author tells of a curious custom of a seamen. When a ship is attacked by a whale the seamen throw an empty tub into the sea to distract the whale’s attention. The mening of the allegory was clear to the readers of that time. The tub was religion which the state (for a ship has always been the emblem of a state) threw to its people to distract them from any struggle.

The Satire is written in the form of a story about three brothers symbolizing the three main religions in England : Peter (the catholic Church), Martin (The Anglican Church) and Kack (puritanism).

In 1726 Swift’s masterpiece “Gulliver’s Travels “ appeared. All Swift;s inventive genius and savage satire were t their bes in this work. This nivel brought him fame and immortality. Swift died on th 19 th of october, 1745, in Dublin.

LECTURE 23 Robert Burns (1759-1796)

His popularity in Scotland is very great. The scottish bard was born in a clay cattage in the village of Alloway. His father was a poor farmer, but a man who valued knowledge. It was from his father that Robert received his learning and his love for books. His mither had a beautifl voice and taught Robert old Scottish songs and ballads which he later turned into his best poems.

Burns hd no regular schooling. But when he was seven his father engaged a teacher to educate him and hi brother. At the age of 13 Robert had to tke over from his father mot of the work on the farm as his father was growing old. Those were hrd times for Robert. Nearly all life Robert worked on his small piece of land. At fifteen he did most of the work on the farm, his father’s health being very poor. And as Robert followed the plough he wistled and sang. He made up his own words to the old folk tunes of Scotland that he knew so well. In his songs he spoke of what he saw – of the woods and fields and valleys, of the deer and the skylark and the small field mouse, of the farmer’s poor cottage.

Burns wrote his first verses when he was 15. Very soon his poms became popular among his friends. In 1785 he met a girl, who became the great love of all his life and inspirer of his numerous lyrical verses.

In 1786 Burns published his first book under the title of “Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect” The book was a great success. He was invited to Edinburgh. He conquered the Edinburgh society by his wit and manneres as much as by poetry. While in Edinburgh Burns got acquainted with some enthusiasts of Scottish songs and ballads and became eengaged in collecting the treasures of the Scottish folklore. He travelled about Scotland collecting popular songs. After his father’ death he did not giv up farming and work hard to earn his living. The last years of hi life is very hard. On July 21, 1796, at the age of 37, Burns died. His body rests in a Mausoleum in Dumfries.

LECTURE 24 English literature in the second half of the 18^th century.

Pre – Romanticism

Another trend in the English literature of the second half of the 18^th century was so-called pre-romanticism. It originated among the conservative groups of men of letters (писатели) as a reaction against Enlightenment.

The mysterious element plays a great role in the works of pre-romanticists. One of pre-romnticists was William Blake (1757-1827), who in spite of mysticism, wrote poems full of human feelins and sympathy for the ppressed peole. Blake;s effectiveness comes from the “poetic contrsts” and simple rhythms.

Blake was born in london into the family of trades people. The family was neither rich nor poor. Blake did not receive any formal education but he demonstrated good knowledge of English literature. At the age of 14 he became an apprentice engraver. And is as well known for his engravings as for his poetry.

Blake has always been seen as a strange character, largely because of his chilhood experience of seeing visions.

He was a very religious man, but he rejectd the established church, declaring that personal experience, the inner-light, should direct and guide man.

Blake had a very individual view of the world. His religious philosophy is seen through his works “Songs of Innocence” (1789), “The Marriage of Heaven and Hell” (1790) and “Songs of Experience” ( 1794). His poems are simple but symbolic. For example, in his poems “The tyger” and “the Lamb”, the tyger is the symbol of mystery and the lamb is the symbol of innocence.

The tyger is the mystical poem that, rather than describes a tyger, an animal that Blake had never seen, is a perception of the Universal Energy, a power beyond good nd evil. In the poem the nature of universal energy becomes clear through a series of questions,which the reader is forced to answer. This makes the reader nter into the poem, becoming part of the poetic experience. During the poem, the reader passes from a state of ignorance to a state of understanding. In this way the poem becomes an “experience” for reader as well as a picture of an experience felt by the poet.

Blake’s later poems are very complex symbolic texts but his voice in the early 1790 is the conscience of the Romantic age. He shows a contrast between a world of nature and childhood innocence and a world of social control. Blake saw the dangers of an industrial society in which individuals were lost, and in his famous poem “Londin” he calls the systems od society “mind forged manacles”.

Blake thought that childhood was the perfect period of sensibility and experience and he fought against injustices against children. In his poem “The chimney sweeper” he shows how the modern world, the world of chimney sweepers, corrupts and “dirties” children. Using the symbolic technique of a “dream”, Blake presents a heavenly view of children who are clean, naked, innocent, and happy, and contrasts it with the reality of the sweep’w life , which is dirty, cold. Corrupted and unhappy.

Blake’s poetry was not immediately recognized during his lifetime , because ot its mysticism .

LECTURE 25 English literature in the beginning of th 19^th century.

Romanticism

The period of Romaticism covers approximatly 30 years, beginning from the last decade of the 18^th century and continuing up to the 1830s. Romanticism as a literary current can be regarded as a result of two great hitorical events: 1. The Industrial revolution in ngland and 2. The French revolution of 1789. The Indutrial revolution began with the invention of a weavring-machine which could do the work of 17 people. The weavers that were left without work thought that the mashines were blame for their misery. They began to destroy theses mashines, or frames as they were called. The frame-breaking movements was called the Luddite movement, because the name of the first man to break a frame was Ned Ludd.

The industrial revolution in England. As well as the French Revolution, had great influence on the cultural life of the people, their fellings and beliefs, the beauty of nature. Romnticits were dissatisfied with the present state of things in their country. Some of the writers were revolutionary they defended the existing order, cfkked upon the people to strugglefor better future, shared the peopl’s deire for liberty and objected o colonial oppression. They supported the national liberation wars on the continent against feudal reaction. Such writers were George Gordon Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelly.

Others, though they had welcomed the French Revolution and the slogan of liberty, fraternity and equality, later abandoned revolutionary ideas. They turned their attention to nature and to the simple problems o life. Among these writers were poets Wiliam Wordsworth< Samuel Coleridge, Robert Southey, who formed the “Lake school”, called so because they all lived for a time in the beautiful Lake District in the North –West of England. They dedicated much what they wrote to Nature. Legends, tales. Songs and ballads became part of the creative method of the romanticists. The romanticists were talented pots and the contribution to English Literature was very important.

LECTURE 26. George Byron (1788 – 1824)

Byron, the great romantic poet, has often been called a pot of “world sorrow’. In almot all his potry there isa current of gloom and pessimism. The reason for his gloom and sorrow may be found in the social and political events of his day which influenced him deeply.

“To solve the mistery of the gloomy poetry of so immense, colossal a poet as Byron, we must first search for the secret of the epoch it expresses” Belinsky wrote.

During his childhood the First Revolution took place in France. At the same time industrial Revolution developed in England. Wars, political oppresion of the massesall these facts observed by the poet, gave rise to his discontent with the social and political life of his time and that’s why his poetry was full of gloom and sorrow. But Byron was not inclined to accept the existing conditions passively. He raised his voice to condemn them, and so to call men to active struggle against the social evils of his time. That is why he may be called a revolutionary romanticist. Byron’s characters like the poet himself are strong individuals who are disillusioned in life and fight single-handed against the injustice and cruelty od society.

The poet was born in 1788 in an aristicratic family in London. His father was an army captain, died when the boy was three years old. The boy spent his childhood in Aberdeen (Scotland) ith his mother. His mother, Catherin Gordon< was a Scottish lady of honorable birth and respectable fortune. Byron was lame and felt distressed about it all his life. Yet, thanks to his strong will and regular training. He became an excellent ider. A champion swimmer and a boxer.

When Byron lived in Aberdeen he attended grammar school. In 1798 Byron’s granduncle died and the boy inherited the title of lord and the Byron’s family estate. Ut was situated near Nottingham, close to the famous Sherwood Forest. Together with his mother the boy moved to Newstead Abbey from where he was sent to Harrow School. At 17 he entered Cambridge University. He was very handsome. He had beautiful manly profile. His contemporary young men tried to imitate his clothesm his manners and even his limping gait. He seemed proud, tragic, melancholic. But he could also be very cheerful and witty.

His literary career began while he was at Cambridge. His first volume of verse entitled “Hours of Idleness” (1807) contained a number of lyrics dealing with love, regret and parting. There were also some translation from Latin and Greek poetry. His poems were seerely criticized by the Edinburgh Review, the leading literary magazine of that time.

After graduating from Cambridge University in 1809 Byron started on a tour through Portugal, Spain, Greece, Turkey and Albania. He returned home in 1811, by right of birth he was a member of the House of Lords.

In 1812 the first two cantos of child “Harold’s Pilgrimage” were published. They were received by his contemporaries with a burst of enthusiasm. He became one of the most popular me in London.

Between 1813 – 1816 Byron composed his “Oriental Tales”. The most famous of tales are “The Giaour”, “The Corsar@ and “Lara”, all of which embody the poet’s romantic individualism. The hero is a rebel against society, a man of strong will and passion. Proud and independent, he rises against tyranny and injustice to gain his personal freedom and happiness.

In theis period Byron began to write his political satires< the most outstanding of which is the “Ode to Framers of the Frame Bill”.

In 1815 Byron married Miss Isabells Milbanker, a religious woman, col and pedantic. It was an unhappy match for the poet .

Though Byron was fond of their child Augusta Ada, he and his wife parted/ The scandl surrounding the devorse was great. The poet was accused of immorality and had to leave the country.

In May 1816 Byron went to Switzerland where he made the acquaintance of Percy Bysshe Shelley and the two poet became close friends.

While in Switzerland Byron wrote Canto the Third of Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage (1816), “The Prisoner of Chillon “(1816) a lirical drama “Manfred” and a number of poems.

“The Prisoner of Chillon “ describes the tragic fate of the Swiss revolutionary Bonnivard who spent a number of years of his life in prison with his brothers.

In 1817 Byron went to Italy, where he lived till 1823. At this time political conditios in Italy were such as to rouse his indignation. He wished to see the country one and undivided. Acting o this idea, the poet joined the secret organization of the Corbanari which was engaged in struggle against the Austrian opressors.

The Italian period (1817-1823), influenced by revolutionary ideas, is considered the summit of Byron’s poetical career. Such works as “Beppo’ (1818) and his greatest work “Don Juan” (1819-1824) are the most realistic works written by the poet. It is a novel in verse, that was to contain 24 cantos, but death stopped his work and only 16 and a half cantos were written. Though the action of Don Juan takes place at the close of the 18^th century, it is easy enough to understand that the author depicts the 19^th century Europe and gives a broad panorama of life.

Other work of this period are: canto the Fourth of Child Harold’s Pilgrimage (1817), “The Prophecy of Dante”, where speaking in the person of the great Italian poet Dante< Byron calls upon Italians to fight for their independence; the tragedy “Cain” (1821).

Лекция 38

JAMES JOYCE

(1882-1941)

James Joyce was born and educated in Dublin. He was a good linguist, from an early age he read and studied widely. He wrote verses and novels. His famous novel, “Ulysses” was a great success (1922). It revolution – ized the form and structure of the novel decisively influenced the development of the “stream of consciousness” or “interior monologue”, and pushed language and linguistic experiment to the extreme limits of communication. “Ulysses” brought J. Joyce both fame and notoriety. Its unprecedented frankness in treating the physiological aspects of human existence was the reason it was banned for obscenity; on the other hand, it was proclaimed an entirely original work, the beginning of a new era in the history of letters.

“Ulysses”.

In long lassoes from the Cock lake the water flowed full, cover­ing green-goldenly lagoons of sand, rising, flowing. My ashplant will float away. I shall wait. No, they will pass on, passing chafing against the low rocks, swirling, passing. Better get this job over quick. Listen: a fourworded wavespeech: seesoo, hrss, rsseeiss oos. Vehement breath of waters amid seasnakes, rearing horses, rocks. In cups of rocks it slops: flop, slop, slap: bounded in barrels. And, spent, its speech ceases. It flows purling, widely flowing, floating foampool, flower unfurling.

Under the upswelling tide he saw the writhing weeds lift languidly and sway reluctant arms, hising up their petticoats, in whispering water swaying and upturning coy silver fronds. Day by day: night by night: lifted, flooded and let fall. Lord, they are weary: and, whispered to, they sigh. Saint Ambrose heard it, sign of leaves and waves, waiting, awaiting the fullness of their times, diebus ac noctibus iniursia patiens ingemiscit. To no end gathered: vainly then released, forth flowing, wending back loom of the moon. Weary too in sight of lovers, lascivious men, a naked woman shining in her courts, she draws a toil of waters.

Five fathoms out there. Full fathom five thy father lies. At one he said. Found drowned. High water at Dublin bar. Driving before it a loose drift of rubble, fanshoals of fishes, silly shells. A corpse rising saltwhite from the undertow, bobbing landward, a pace a pace a porpoise. There he is. Hook it quick. Sunk though he be beneath the watery floor. We have him. Easy now.

Bag of corpsegas sopping in foul brine. A quiver of minnows, fat o a spongy titbit.... God becomes man becomes fish becomes barnacle goose becomes featherbed mountain. Dead breaths I living breathe, tread dead dust, devour a urinous offal from all dead. Hauled stark over the gunwale he breathes upward the stench of his green grave, his leprous nosehole snoring to the sun.

A seachange this brown eyes saltblue. Seadeath, mildest of all deaths known to man. Old Father Ocean. Prix de Paris: beware of imitations. Just you give it a fair trial. We enjoyed ourselves immensely.

Come. I thirst. Clouding over. No black clouds anywhere, are there? Thunderstorm. Allbright he falls, proud lightning of the intellect, Lucifer, dico, qui nescit occasum. No. My cockle fat and staff and his my sandal shoon. Where? To evening lands. Eve­ning will find itself.

He took the hilt of his ashplant, lunging with it softly, dallying still. Yes, evening will find itself in me, without me. All days make their end. By the way next when is it? Tuesday will be the longest day. Of all the glad new year, mother, the rum tum tiddledy tum Lawn Tennyson, gentleman poet.

Лекция 39