In particular… pediatrics Acute Respiratory Infections in Children

Acute respiratory infections (ARIs) are classified as upper respiratory tract infections (URIs) or lower respiratory tract infections (LRIs). The upper respiratory tract consists of the airways from the nostrils to the vocal cords in the larynx, including the paranasal sinuses and the middle ear. The lower respiratory tract covers the continuation of the airways from the trachea and bronchi to the bronchioles and the alveoli. ARIs are not confined to the respiratory tract and have systemic effects because of possible extension of infection or microbial toxins, inflammation, and reduced lung function. Diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough), and measles are vaccine-preventable diseases that may have a respiratory tract component but also affect other systems.

Except during the neonatal period, ARIs are the most common causes of both illness and mortality in children under five, who average three to six episodes of ARIs annually. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 2 million children under five die of pneumonia each year.

Upper Respiratory Tract Infections URIs are the most common infectious diseases. They include rhinitis (common cold), sinusitis, ear infections, acute pharyngitis or tonsillopharyngitis, epiglottitis, and laryngitis—of which ear infections and pharyngitis cause the more severe complications (deafness and acute rheumatic fever, respectively). The vast majority of URIs have a viral etiology. Rhinoviruses account for 25 to 30 percent of URIs; respiratory syncytial viruses (RSVs), parainfluenza and influenza viruses, human metapneumovirus, and adenoviruses for 25 to 35 percent; corona viruses for 10 percent; and unidentified viruses for the remainder.

Because most URIs are self-limiting, their complications are more important than the infections. Acute viral infections predispose children to bacterial infections of the sinuses and middle ear, and aspiration of infected secretions and cells can result in LRIs.

Acute Pharyngitis Acute pharyngitis is caused by viruses in more than 70 percent of cases in young children. Mild pharyngeal redness and swelling and tonsil enlargement are typical. Streptococcal infection is rare in children under five and more common in older children. Acute pharyngitis in conjunction with the development of a membrane on the throat is nearly always caused by Corynebacterium diphtheriae in developing countries. However, with the almost universal vaccination of infants with the DTP (diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis) vaccine, diphtheria is rare.

Lower Respiratory Tract Infections The common LRIs in children are pneumonia and bronchiolitis. The respiratory rate is a valuable clinical sign for diagnosing acute LRI in children who are coughing and breathing rapidly.

Currently, the most common causes of viral LRIs are RSVs. They tend to be highly seasonal, unlike parainfluenza viruses, the next most common cause of viral LRIs. The epidemiology of influenza viruses in children in developing countries deserves urgent investigation because safe and effective vaccines are available. Before the effective use of measles vaccine, the measles virus was the most important viral cause of respiratory tract–related morbidity and mortality in children in developing countries.

Both bacteria and viruses can cause pneumonia. Bacterial pneumonia is often caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) or Haemophilus influenzae, mostly type b (Hib), or other streptococci. Just 8 to 12 of the many types of pneumococcus cause most cases of bacterial pneumonia, although the specific types may vary between adults and children and between geographic locations.

Interventions to control ARIs can be divided into four basic categories: immunization against specific pathogens, early diagnosis and treatment of disease, improvements in nutrition, and safer environments. The first two fall within the purview of the health system, whereas the last two fall under public health and require multisectoral involvement.

⃰Acute Stress Disorder Common in Children and Parents After Traffic Accident

In 90 percent of families with children injured in a traffic crash, the child or a parent is most likely to suffer at least one significant acute stress symptom. And 25 percent of children and parents experience more pervasive symptoms that warrant clinical attention. It is normal for parents to be very distressed in the aftermath of a child's injury, yet parents' own acute stress symptoms may influence a child's response to the traumatic event.

Acute stress disorder is a group of symptoms and reactions that may occur within the first month after a traumatic experience. ASD symptoms include re-experiencing the trauma (unwanted and upsetting thoughts or memories), avoiding reminders of the trauma, hyperarousal (jumpiness), and dissociation (numbing, feelings of unreality).

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is diagnosed when these symptoms persist for a long time (at least one month) and begin to impair the individual's everyday functioning. The Children's Hospital researchers found that acute stress symptoms were common within the first month after injury. Among injured children and their parents, more than four-fifths experienced at least one significant acute stress symptom.

Health care providers thus need to identify effective ways to support distressed parents, so that parents in turn can most effectively help their child to cope with a traumatic injury, researchers say.

3. Лексические опоры для понимания медицинских текстов. 3.1. Слова общего корня в английском, латинском и русском языках. В медицинской терминосистеме на долю интернационализмов приходится до 85% от общего количества терминов. Следовательно, в научных медицинских текстах содержится много слов, которые имеют общий корень с русскими словами. Очень важными являются графические совпадения слов общего корня, так как в книжной лексике графическая сторона имеет первостепенное значение. Некоторые английские слова, имеющие общий корень с латинскими или русскими, графически почти полностью совпадают:

Английский assistant canal contact culture fact material period vacuum vitamin

Русский ассистент канал контакт культура факт материал период витамин витамин

Большинство английских терминов совпадает с латинскими, различия наблюдаются, как правило, только в окончании слов:

Английский abdomen apex chronic adult bilateral cause malignant exterior septum superior vertebra

Латинский abdomen apex chronicus adultus bilateralis causa malignus exterior septum superior vertebra

Различие в последней букве или буквах слов общего корня встречается гораздо чаще. При этом вместо конечного немого -е в английских словах встречается нулевое окончание русских существительных мужского рода (appetite — аппетит, microbe — микроб, nerve — нерв) и окончание -а (я) существительных женского рода (amplitude — амплитуда, date — дата, minute —минута).

Английское -у в конце слова часто соответствует русскому -ия (analogy —аналогия, artery —артерия, category — категория).

Нулевое окончание английского существительного обычно соответствует русским существительным женского рода на –а (clinic — клиника, diet — диета, form — форма, problem — проблема).

Английские окончания -ium, -eum соответствуют русским ~ий (-ия), -ей (barium — барий, bacterium,— бактерия, museum — музей).

Редукция или опускание звуков в конце слов русского или английского языка также нередко имеет место (botany — ботаника, grade — градус, cone — конус, iodine — йод, narcosis — наркоз).

При сравнении слов общего корня в английском и латинском языках следует отметить, что различия наблюдаются, как правило, только в окончании слов, так как корни и большая часть аффиксов обычно имеют почти полное графическое совпадение. Использование этого фактора дает возможность распознавать и понимать слова общего корня на основе анализа сходных явлений английского и латинского языков, что также способствует оптимизации процесса перевода.