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Physics and
Radiobiology
ofNuclear Medicine
GopalB. Saha
FifthEdition
123
Physics and Radiobiology of Nuclear
Medicine
GopalB.Saha
Physics and Radiobiology
of Nuclear Medicine
Fifth Edition
GopalB.Saha
Emeritus Staff- Cleveland Clinic Foundation
Cleveland, OH, USA
ISBN 978-1-0716-4815-5 ISBN 978-1-0716-4816-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-4816-2
G. B. Saha, Physics and Radiobiology of Nuclear Medicine, © Springer Science+Business Media
NewYork 2013
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Science+Business
Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 1993, 2001, 2006, 2013, 2025
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microlms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specic statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional afliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Science+Business Media, LLC,
part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: 1 NewYork Plaza, NewYork, NY 10004, U.S.A.
If disposing of this product, please recycle the paper.
To those who serve humanity and
contribute to peace in the world!
Preface
Since the last publication of Physics and Radiobiology of Nuclear Medicine in
2013, basic nuclear medicine physics has not changed much in terms of innovation
and development. Several new cameras have been introduced but the basic principles of their operation remain the same. However, currently a major topic of interest
is the advent of articial intelligence (AI) that has pervaded in all aspects of our life.
AI is a branch of computer science that performs tasks mimicking human intelligence based on reasoning, learning, and problem-solving. The main objective of AI
is to predict a solution to a problem, human or otherwise, by analyzing a massive
amount of similar data, thus lessening the time for doing a task by humans. Physics
and, broadly speaking, science, in general, are no exception, and AI is extremely
helpful to carry out tasks related to physics and radiobiology in nuclear medicine.
In view of the above, the contents of all chapters from the fourth edition are kept
almost unaltered with only minor but appropriate changes deemed necessary. Tables
12.2, 13.2, 13.3, 16.1, and 16.5 are all updated with current information. Similarly,
new up-to-date Figs.12.18, 13.6, and 13.11 replace the old ones. A section on optically stimulated luminescent dosimeter and the topics of radiation safety ofcer and
radiation safety committee are added in Chap. 18. Appendix D on abbreviation of
terms used in the text is added.
The highlight of the fth edition is the addition of two chapters on AI.Chapter
14 describes the basic concept of AI, detailing the architectures of different AI mod-
els and their operational principles. The pros and cons of AI and its future are discussed. Chapter 15 documents the application of AI in nuclear medicine, with
citations of examples of workows, interpretation of scans of various diseases and
prediction of accurate diagnosis, and new drug development. The current pitfalls of
AI in making accurate diagnosis of diseases in nuclear medicine are mentioned.
vii
viii
Preface
I am sincerely ever grateful to Margaret Moore, Executive Editor of Clinical
Medicine, Springer Nature, for offering me the contract for the fth edition of the
book and providing very helpful guidance and support during the entire project.
Many thanks are due to Swathiga Karthikeyan and Patricia Gutierrez for their coordination in the production of the book. I sincerely thank Janaki Srinivasan for skillful production of the book. I am deeply indebted to Springer Nature for their trust in
me for more than 46 years and support in publishing four textbooks and their many
editions.
Cleveland, OH, USA GopalB.Saha
Contents
1 Structure of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Matter and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 The Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Electronic Structure of the Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Structure of the Nucleus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.3 Nuclear Binding Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Nuclear Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Chart of Nuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2 Radioactive Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 Spontaneous Fission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Isomeric Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.1 Gamma (γ)-Ray Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.2 Internal Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Alpha (α)-Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 Beta (β−)-Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 Positron (β+)-Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.6 Electron Capture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.7 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3 Kinetics of Radioactive Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1 Radioactive Decay Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.1 General Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.2 Half-Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.1.3 Mean Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.1.4 Effective Half-Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 Units of Radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3 Specic Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
ix
x
Contents
3.4 Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.5 Successive Decay Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.5.1 General Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.5.2 Transient Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.5.3 Secular Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.6 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4 Statistics of Radiation Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.1 Error, Accuracy, and Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2 Mean and Standard Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3 Standard Deviation of Count Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.4 Propagation of Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.5 Poisson Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.6 Gaussian Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.7 Chi-Square Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.8 Minimum Detectable Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.9 Evaluation of Diagnostic Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.10 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5 Production of Radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.1 Cyclotron-Produced Radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.2 Reactor-Produced Radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.2.1 Fission or (n, f) Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2.2 Neutron Capture or (n, γ) Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.3 Nonuranium Production of 99Mo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.4 Target and Its Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.5 Equation for Production of Radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.6 Radionuclide Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.6.1 99Mo–
5.7 Cyclotron Production of
99m
Tc Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
99m
Tc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.8 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6 Interaction of Radiation with Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.1 Interaction of Charged Particles with Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.1.1 Specic Ionization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.1.2 Linear Energy Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.1.3 Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.1.4 Bremsstrahlung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.1.5 Positron Annihilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.2 Interaction of γ-Radiations with Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.2.1 Mechanism of Interaction of γ-Radiations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.2.1.1 Photoelectric Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.2.1.2 Compton Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Contents
6.2.1.3 Pair Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.2.1.4 Raleigh Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.2.1.5 Photodisintegration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.3 Attenuation of γ-Radiations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.3.1 Linear and Mass Attenuation Coefcients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.3.2 Half-Value Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6.4 Interaction of Neutrons with Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6.5 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7 Gas-Filled Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.1 Principles of Gas-Filled Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.2 Ionization Chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.2.1 Ion Chamber Survey Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
7.2.2 Dose Calibrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
7.2.2.1 Constancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.2.2.2 Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.2.2.3 Linearity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.2.2.4 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.2.3 Pocket Dosimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.3 Proportional Counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
7.4 Geiger–Müller Counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
7.5 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
xi
8 Scintillation and Semiconductor Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
8.1 Scintillation Counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
8.2 Solid Scintillation Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
8.2.1 NaI (Tl) Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
8.2.2 Bismuth Germanate Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
8.2.3 Barium Fluoride Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
8.2.4 Lutetium Oxyorthosilicate Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
8.2.5 Gadolinium Oxyorthosilicate Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
8.2.6 Yttrium Oxyorthosilicate Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
8.2.7 Yttrium Aluminum Perovskite Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
8.2.8 Lutetium Yttrium Oxyorthosilicate Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
8.2.9 Lanthanum Bromide Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
8.3 Solid-State Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
8.3.1 Germanium and Silicon Detector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
8.3.2 Cadmium–Zinc–Tellurium Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
8.3.3 Cesium Iodide (CsI(Tl)) Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
8.3.4 Solid Scintillation Counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
8.3.4.1 NaI(Tl) Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
8.3.4.2 Photomultiplier Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98