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Файл:English Grammar for Electrical Specialists. Учебное пособие для СПО
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nucleus it will revolve. 4. The thicker wire you use, the …..current will flow through it. 5.
Lead is …… than aluminium. 6. Materials having free electrons are ….. electric
conductors. 7. The …..wire you use, the …… current will flow through it. 8. The ….. the
voltage, the better should be the insulation. 9. The electrons …… from the nucleus are
loosely bound to the atom. 10. Metals are …… conductors of electricity. 11. The …… the
difference between the temperatures, the …… the heat engine. 12. Ohm's law is one of the
…… laws in physics.
Ex. 2. Complete these sentences with the necessary forms of adjectives.
1. … (good) way to do this is to switch off the equipment in question. 2. … (great)
the number of echo samples in a complete circle (that is, … (small) the angle between
samples), … (many) detail can be resolved at a given distance from the robot, and …
(great) the distance at which a given amount of detail can be resolved. 3. Engineers and
technicians usually connect an ohmmeter in a circuit with the meter set for … (high)
resistance range first. 4. … (common) device for demonstrating electrostatic forces is the
electroscope. 5. As computers become … (powerful), people tend to set … (high) standards
for what they call AI. 6. In a digital audio tape recording system, is noise a … (serious)
problem than it is in an analog system? 7. … (far) away from the nucleus the shell, …
(much) energy the electron has. 8. This type of metering scheme, called the D’Arsonval
movement, has been around since … (early) days of electricity, but it is still used in some
metering devices today. 9.… (high) the value in ohms, … (great) the resistance, and …
(difficult) it becomes for current to flow. 10. In a semiconductor, … (abundant) type of
charge carrier is called the majority carrier. … (abundant) kind is known as the minority
carrier. 11. … (old and universal) source of magnetism is the geomagnetic field
surrounding the earth, caused by alignment of iron atoms in the core of the planet. 12. …
(common) method of doing this uses a device called the diode. 13. Iron is … (common)
metal that has this property.
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7 The structural parts of speech
7.1 The conjunctions and prepositions
Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word that links words, phrases, or clauses. There are three types
of conjunctions: 1) coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so); 2) correlative
conjunctions (both...and, either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also); 3) subordinating
conjunctions (after, although, because, if, etc.).
Coordinating conjunctions may join single words, or they may join groups of words,
but they must always join similar elements, e.g.: subject+subject, verb phrase+verb
phrase, sentence+sentence. E.g.: It combines voltage, resistance, and current measuring
capabilities. The operator need not worry about critical adjustments, nor bother to change
them when changing the frequency. The tuned circuit makes the feedback path easy for a
signal to follow at one frequency, but hard to follow at all other frequencies.
Correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. They join similar elements, e.g.:
The direction of wave travel is perpendicular to both the E and M flux lines. Either the
sum or the difference signal is amplified. This force works not only in a horizontal plane
(parallel to the earth’s surface), but also vertically at most latitudes.
Subordinating conjunctions are words which join together a dependent (subordinate)
clause and an independent clause. A dependent clause is a clause which cannot exist on its
own; it needs a main (or independent) clause to go with it. E.g.: Because geomagnetic
north is not the same as geographic north in most places on the earth’s surface, there is an
angular difference between the two. Although the amplitude (the number of amperes,
volts, or watts) can fluctuate from moment to moment, the charge carriers always flow in
the same direction at any point in the circuit. The reflected signals, or echoes, are picked
up by the antenna shortly after the pulse is transmitted.
Prepositions
Prepositions are a class of words that indicate relationships between nouns,
pronouns and other words in a sentence. Most often they come before a noun. They never
change their form, regardless of the case, gender etc. of the word they are referring to.
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Simple or Compound prepositions. Prepositions are classified as simple or
compound. Simple prepositions are single word prepositions (across, after, at, before,
between, by, during, from, in, into, of, on, to, through, under, with and
without).Compound prepositions are more than one word (in between, because of, in front
of, on behalf of). E. g.: During the Second World War in the 1940s, this property of radio
waves was put to use for the purpose of locating aircraft. Just as certain solids can be
placed within a coil to increase the inductance, materials exist that can be sandwiched in
between the plates of a capacitor to increase the capacitance.
Prepositions of movement. Prepositions can be used to show movement (to,
through, across). ‘To’ is used to show movement with the aim of a specific destination.
‘Through’ is used to show movement from one side of an enclosed space to the other side.
‘Across’ is used to show movement from one side of a surface or line to another (walked
across the road). E. g.: When dc flows through the component, the aluminum oxidizes
because of the electrolyte. When a voltage source is connected across a diode so that it
does not conduct, the diode acts as a capacitor.
Prepositions of place. Prepositions can be used to show where something is located.
‘At’ is used to show a specific place or position. ‘On’ is used to show position on a
horizontal or vertical surface. ‘In’ is used to show that something is enclosed or
surrounded. More prepositions of place are ‘after, among, behind, in front of, by / next to /
besides, over, below, under. E. g.: All bipolar transistors or FETs create some white noise
because of the movement of the charge carriers among the atoms. Security and privacy in
wireless networks and communications systems can be achieved by means of digital
encryption. The heads hover a few millionths of a centimeter above and below the platter
surfaces.
Prepositions of time. Prepositions can be used to show when something happens
(time, day, date, month, year, morning, afternoon, evening, night, season). Prepositions of
time are ‘at, on, in’ .E.g.: All this takes place in a small fraction of a second. When you hit
a key to add a character, or drag the mouse to draw a line that shows up on your display,
that character or line goes into memory at the same time.
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Exercises
Ex. 1. Choose the correct conjunction or preposition for the following
sentences.
1. During this time the original file on the storage medium stays as it was … (after,
before) you accessed it. No change is made to that data … (until, for) you specifically
instruct the computer to overwrite it. Then the data leaves memory … (and, but) goes back
to the medium from which it came, … (either, or) to some other place, as you direct. …
(Although, if) you tell the computer to overwrite the file on the medium from which it
came, many programs send the new data (containing the changes you have made) to
unused space there; the old data (as it was … (before, after) you opened the file) stays in
its old location. 2. A gigantic memory is of little practical value … (as, if) the
microprocessor is slow. 3. … (Neither, nor) is a fast microprocessor worth much if the
memory capacity is too small for the applications (programs) you want to run. 4. This type
of display is large and heavy, and … (although, because) some people consider CRTs
obsolete, other computer users prefer them, especially the larger ones, which can have a
diagonal screen measure of 53 cm (21 in) or more. 5. It has a cord that runs to … (either,
not only) the computer’s serial data port (also called the communications port) … (but
also, or) one of the USB ports, … (and, if) another cord that runs to the telephone line,
cable system, … (nor, or) satellite dish. 6. When measuring frequencies of radio signals,
digital metering is … (neither, not only) more convenient, … (nor, but also) far more
accurate. 7. When t = 0.25, and also when t = 0.75, the instantaneous voltage … (after,
neither) increases … (nor, before) decreases. 8. For a MEO system to be effective in
providing worldwide coverage without localized periodic blackouts, the orbits must be
diverse, … (yet, and) coordinated in a precise and predictable way.
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Ex. 2. Insert the preposition in the following sentences. Use the given
prepositions (some of them may be used several times).
of, for, on, over, in, beneath, by, near, with, without, at, to, from
1. Every time a MEO satellite completes one orbit, the earth rotates … it. The
rotation … the earth rarely coincides … the orbital period of the satellite. Therefore,
successive apogees … a MEO satellite occur … different points the earth’s surface. This
makes the tracking of individual satellites a complicated business, requiring computers
programmed … accurate orbital data. … a MEO system to be effective … providing
worldwide coverage … localized periodic blackouts, the orbits must be diverse, yet
coordinated … a precise and predictable way. In addition, there must be enough satellites
so that each point … the earth is always … a line of sight … one or more of the satellites,
and preferably, there should be at least one bird … sight … apogee … all times.
2. … most countries … the world, people can obtain government-issued licenses to
send and receive messages … radio … nonprofessional purposes. … America, this hobby
is called amateur radio or ham radio. If you want only to listen … communications and
broadcasting, and not to transmit signals, you do not need a license … the United States
(although you do need one … some countries).
3. Commercially made transient suppressors are available. These devices, often
mistakenly called “ surge protectors”, use sophisticated methods to prevent sudden voltage
spikes … reaching levels where they can cause problems. It is a good idea to use transient
suppressors … all sensitive electronic devices, including computers, hi-fi stereo systems,
and television sets. … the event of a thundershower, the best way to protect such
equipment is to physically unplug it … the wall outlets until the event has passed.
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8 Syntax
8.1 The emphatic construction “It is (was) … who (that) …”
Emphatic construction with ‘it’ is used to emphasize some part of the sentence or a
clause to make the idea more emotional: “It is (was) ... who (which, that, when) ...”.
This construction can make any part of the sentence emphatic but for the predicate.
In Russian such sentences usually sound with ‘именно’, e.g.: This can be achieved by
having technicians wear metal wrist straps connected to a good electrical ground. – It is by
having technicians wear metal wrist straps connected to a good electrical ground that this
can be achieved.
Exercises
Ex. 1. Translate the sentences into Russian paying attention to the use of
emphatic constructions.
1. It was the need for large-scale ballistic computations which gave rise to the
development of electronic computers. 2. It is from the Greek word electron that the word
electricity is formed. 3. It is the smallest particle that still retains the properties of the
element from which it comes. 4. It is what we understand to be electricity. 5. It is the force
of gravitation that makes the sattelites move round the Earth. 6. It was a planet that they
observed with great interest until losing sight of it. 7. It was in 1882 that P. Chebyshev
invented the arithmometer performing multiplication and division. 8. It is electricity that is
supplied to the machine and it is motion that we obtain. 9. It is the insulator that provides
better sound attenuation and fire resistance than conventional and other insulation
products. 10. It is an overloaded circuit that is carrying more current than it is designed to
handle, creating a danger of fire through overheating.
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Ex. 2. Make the following sentences emphatic according to the model.
Model: All forms of MOS logic ICs require care in handling. – It is care all forms
of MOS logic ICs require in handling.
1. The pins should be pushed into special conductive foam that is manufactured for
that purpose. 2. The number of elements per chip in an IC is called the component density.
3. In medium scale integration (MSI), there are 10 to 100 transistors per chip. 4. Both
bipolar and MOS technologies can be adapted to MSI. 5. Devices of this kind have more
than 1,000,000 transistors per chip. 6. Binary digital data, in the form of high and low
levels (logic ones and zeros), can be stored in memory ICs. 7. A random access memory
(RAM) chip stores binary data in arrays. 8. ADRAM chip contains transistors and
capacitors. 9. An SRAM chip uses a flip-flop to store the data. 10. The most common
means of memory backup is the use of a small cell or battery with a long shelf life. 11. A
standard ROM chip is programmed at the factory. 12. The data contents of ROM chips are
generally nonvolatile.
8.2 The ways of expressing the subject
The subject is the principal part of a two-member sentence which is grammatically
independent of the other parts of the sentence and on which the second principal part (the
predicate) is grammatically dependent, i.e. in most cases it agrees with the subject in
person and in number. The subject can denote a living being, a lifeless thing, an idea. The
subject can be expressed by: a noun in the common case, a pronoun (personal, possessive,
reflexive, reciprocal, demonstrative, interrogative, defining, indefinite, negative,
quantitative), a numeral, a substantivized adjective or participle, an infinitive, infinitive
phrase or construction, a gerund, gerundial phrase or construction, any part of speech used
as a quotation, a group of words which is one part of the sentence, a syntactically
indivisible group, a clause.
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Exercises
Ex. 1. Define the subject in the following sentences and say what it is expressed
by.
1. There are two basic types of electron tube: the vacuum tube and the gas-filled
tube. 2. In a tube, the charge carriers are free electrons that travel through space between
electrodes inside the device. 3. This makes tubes fundamentally different from
semiconductor devices, in which charge carriers move among atoms in a solid medium. 4.
Even before the year 1900, scientists knew that electrons could carry electric current
through a vacuum. 5. They also knew that hot electrodes emit electrons more easily than
cool ones. 6. It is important that dc be used to heat the filament in this type of tube,
because ac will tend to modulate the output. 7. Knowing what is connected to the line will
help you. 8. What is necessary to know is the phase difference between the two waves. 9.
What Kirchhoff was expressing, when he wrote his second law, is the principle that
voltage cannot appear out of nowhere, nor can it vanish. 10. If the voltage is increased
without limit, arcing will eventually take place.
8.3 Types of the predicate
The predicate is the second principal part of the sentence which expresses the
action, state, quality of the person or thing denoted by the subject.
Simple predicate is such a predicate in which both primary lexical meaning and
additional grammatical meaning are expressed in one word.
Compound predicate is such a predicate in which the primary lexical meaning is
expressed in one word – a notional word and the additional grammatical meanings are
expressed in another word – a semi-auxiliary word.
The compound nominal predicate consists of a link verb and a predicative. It
denotes the state or quality of the person or thing expressed by the subject, or the class of
persons or things to which this person or thing belongs. The link verb is the structural
element of the predicate. It expresses the grammatical categories of tense, aspect, mood,
person, number. The predicative is the notional part of the compound nominal predicate.
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According to their meaning link verbs can be divided into two large groups:
1. a) Link verbs of being– to be, to feel, to look, to smell, , to shine, to seem, to
prove, to appear, etc.
b) Link verbs of remaining – to remain, to continue, to keep, to stay.
2. Link verbs of becoming – to become, to get, to grow, to come, to go, to leave, to
run, to turn, to make, etc.
The predicative is the significant part of the compound nominal predicate which
serves to characterize the subject. The predicative can be expressed by: a noun in the
common case or in the genitive case, an adjective or an adjective phrase, a pronoun, a
numeral, an infinitive, an infinitive phrase or construction, a gerund, a gerundial phrase or
construction, a participle, a participial phrase, a prepositional phrase, a word of the
category of state, an indivisible group of words, a clause, an adverb.
The compound modal predicate expresses the attitude of the speaker towards the
action. It shows whether the action expressed by a non-finite form of the verb is
considered as possible, impossible, obligatory, necessary, desirable, etc. These shades of
meaning are expressed by the first component of the predicate.
Modality can be expressed:
1) modal verbs,
2) modal expressions (to be to (+ Infinitive), to have to (+ Infinitive),
3) a verb with a modal meaning (to hope, to try, to expect, to want, to long, to wish,
to desire, to endeavor, to attempt, to intend, etc.),
4) modal expressions which are the synonyms to modal verbs (to be able, to be
obliged, to be bound, to be willing, to be anxious, to be capable, to be going),
5) the subjective infinitive construction (the complex subject).
The compound verbal aspect predicate consists of two parts: the first part is usually
a verb expressing the beginning, repetition, duration, or cessation of the action expressed
by the non-finite form of the verb (an infinitive or a gerund) which is the second part.
The first part is usually expressed by such verbs as to begin, to start, to commence,
to fall, to set about, to go on, to keep on, to continue, to stop, to proceed, to give up, to
finish, to cease, to come, would (+ Infinitive), used to (+ Infinitive).
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The mixed types of the predicate are: the compound modal nominal predicate, the
compound aspect nominal predicate, the compound modal aspect predicate, and even the
compound modal aspect nominal predicate. In these types of the predicate the interrelation
of the characteristic features of all components is observed. The examples for these are as
follows: Susceptance can be either capacitive or inductive. If a nickel-based unit is used
over and over, and is discharged to the same extent every time, it might begin to die at that
point in its discharge cycle.
Exercises
Ex. 1. Define the predicate in the following sentences and its type.
1. When people began to connect their computers into ARPAnet, the need became
clear for a universal set of standards, called a protocol, to ensure that all the machines
“speak the same language.” 2. However, the situation is vastly more complicated than
when data goes from one place to another within a single computer. In the Internet (often
called simply the Net), data must often go through several different computers to get from
the transmitting or source computer to the receiving or destination computer. 3. Millions
of people are simultaneously using the Net. The most efficient route between a given
source and destination can change from moment to moment. The Net is set up in such a
way that signals always try to follow the most efficient route. 4. A file cannot be
completely reconstructed until all the packets have arrived and the destination computer
has ensured that there are no errors. 5. To effectively use e-mail or newsgroups, everyone
must have an Internet address. These tend to be arcane. 6. It is possible to digitize voice
signals and transfer them via the Internet. This has given rise to hardware and software
schemes that claim to provide virtually toll-free long-distance telephone communications.
This is similar to cellular telephone communications in terms of reliability and quality of
connection. When Net traffic is light, such connections can be good.
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