Добавил:
ivanov666
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:Физика (Physics). Английский язык. Тексты для чтения, перевода и обсуждения. Учебно-методическое пособие
.pdf
71
that some uranium nuclei broke into two parts, a phenomenon called nuclear
fission. At the same time, a huge amount of energy was released by mass conversion, as well as some neutrons. These results suggested the possibility of a
self-sustained chain reaction, and this was achieved by Fermi and his group in
1942, when the first nuclear reactor went into operation. Technological developments followed rapidly; the first atomic bomb was produced in 1945 as a
result of a massive program under the direction of the American physicist J.
Robert Oppenheimer, and the first nuclear power reactor for the production of
electricity went into operation in England in 1956, yielding 78 million watts.
Further developments were based on the investigation of the energy source
of the stars, which the German American physicist Hans Albrecht Bethe
showed to be a series of nuclear reactions occurring at temperatures of millions
of degrees. In these reactions, four hydrogen nuclei are converted into a helium
nucleus, with two positrons and massive amounts of energy forming the byproducts. This nuclear-fusion process was adopted in modified form, largely
based on ideas developed by the Hungarian-American physicist Edward Teller,
as the basis of the fusion or hydrogen bomb. First detonated in 1952, it is a
weapon much more powerful than the fission bomb. A small fission bomb
provides the high temperature necessary to trigger fusion of hydrogen.
Much current research is devoted to producing a controlled, rather than an
explosive, fusion device, which would be less radioactive than a fission reactor
and would provide an almost limitless source of energy. In December 1993
significant progress was made toward this goal when researchers at Princeton
University used the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor to produce a controlled fusion reaction that output 5.6 million watts of power. However, the tokamak
consumed more power than it produced during its operation.
induce [ɪn'djuːs] 1) побуждать, склонять, убеждать 2) вызывать; стимулиро-
вать; приводить (к чему-л.) 3) индуцировать 4) а) выводить умозаключение (пу-
тём индукции) б) делать вывод 5) наводить (заряд, ток, эдс)
From a sufficient number of results a proposition or law is induced. — Исходя из
достаточного количества результатов можно сделать вывод или установить закономерность.
collaborator [kR'læb(R)reɪtR] соавтор
self-sustained самоподдерживающийся; саморегулирующийся
by(-)product ['baɪˌprɔdʌkt] побочный продукт
72
detonate ['detRneɪt] 1) вызывать (что-л.) ; порождать (что-л.) ; давать толчок к
началу (чего-л.) 2) взрывать, детонировать 3) взрываться
fission ['fɪʃ(R)n] 1. 1) деление, разделение на части, раскалывание 2) расщепление, деление атомного ядра при цепной реакции 2. 1) разбиваться, раскалываться
2) а) расщепляться, делиться (о делении ядра атома) б) вызывать расщепление,
деление (ядра атома)
binary fission — деление на две части; простое деление ядра
Solid-State Physics
In solids, the atoms are closely packed, leading to strong interactive forces
and numerous interrelated effects that are not observed in gases, where the
molecules largely act independently. Interaction effects lead to the mechanical,
thermal, electrical, magnetic, and optical properties of solids, which is an area
that remains difficult to handle theoretically, although much progress has been
made.
A principal characteristic of most solids is their crystalline structure, with
the atoms arranged in regular and geometrically repeating arrays. The specific
arrangement of the atoms may arise from a variety of forces; thus, some solids,
such as sodium chloride, or common salt, are held together by ionic bonds
originating in the electric attraction between the ions of which the materials are
composed. In others, such as diamond, atoms share electrons, giving rise to
covalent bonding. Inert substances, such as neon, exhibit neither of these
bonds. Their existence is a result of the so-called van der Waals forces, named
after the Dutch physicist Johannes Diderik van der Waals. These forces exist
between neutral molecules or atoms as a result of electric polarization. Metals,
on the other hand, are bonded by a so-called electron gas, or electrons that are
freed from the outer atomic shell and shared by all atoms, and that define most
properties of the metal.
The sharp, discrete energy levels permitted to the electrons in individual
atoms become broadened into energy bands when the atoms become closely
packed in a solid. The width and separation of these bands define many properties, and thus the separation by a so-called forbidden band, where no electrons may exist, restricts their motion and results in a good electric and thermal
insulator. Overlapping energy bands and their associated ease of electron mo-
73
tion results in their being good conductors of electricity and heat. If the forbidden band is narrow, a few fast electrons may be able to jump across, yielding a
semiconductor. In this case the energy-band spacing may be greatly affected
by minute amounts of impurities, such as arsenic in silicon. The lowering of a
high-energy band by the impurity results in a so-called donor of electrons, or
an n-type semiconductor. The raising of a low-energy band by an impurity like
gallium results in an acceptor, where the vacancies or “holes” in the electron
structure act like movable positive charges and are characteristic of p-type
semiconductors. A number of modern electronic devices, notably the transistor, developed by the American physicists John Bardeen, Walter Houser Brattain, and William Bradford Shockley, are based on these semiconductor properties.
Magnetic properties in a solid arise from the electrons' acting like tiny
magnetic dipoles. Electron spin plays a big role in magnetism, leading to spin
waves that have been observed in some solids. Almost all solid properties depend on temperature. Thus, ferromagnetic materials, including iron and nickel,
lose their normal strong residual magnetism at a characteristic high temperature, called the Curie temperature. Electrical resistance usually decreases with
decreasing temperature, and for certain materials, called superconductors, it
becomes extremely low, near absolute zero. These and many other phenomena
observed in solids depend on energy quantization and can best be described in
terms of effective “particles” such as phonons, polarons, and magnons.
interrelate [ˌɪntRrɪ'leɪt] а) находиться во взаимоотношениях, взаимосвязи (с
кем-л., чем-л.) б) устанавливать взаимосвязь, связывать
I cannot interrelate these two events. — Я не могу связать эти два события.
interrelated — взаимосвязанный
exhibit [ɪg'zɪbɪt ], [eg'zɪbɪt] 1. 1) экспонат (на выставке) 2) показ, выставка 2. 1)
а) показывать; выказывать, выражать, проявлять б) выставлять; экспонировать на
выставке
to mount / organize an exhibit — проводить выставку
free [friː] 1. а) свободный, вольный, независи мы й б) свободный для доступа,
открытый, доступный 2. освобождать, высвобождать; отсоединять, отвязывать
free access — свободный доступ, открытый доступ
mixed free — смешанно свободный
topologically free — топологически свободный
74
forbid [fR'bɪd ], [fɔː'bɪd] forbad , forbade ; forbidden запрещать; не позволять;
препятствовать
forbidden [fR'bɪd(R)n ], [fɔː'bɪd(R)n] запретный; запрещённый
forbidden ground — запретная тема (разговора)
restrict [rɪ'strɪkt] ограничивать
His power was restricted within narrow limits. — Его полномочия были очень
ограничены.
Certain information is restricted to government officials. — Доступ к определён-
ной информации разрешён только правительственным чиновникам.
impurity [ɪm'pjuRrRtɪ] 1) грязь, загрязнение 2) примесь , вк лючение
acceptor [Rk'septR] приемщик; акцептант, акцептор
stochastic acceptor — вероятностный [стохастический] акцептор
proton acceptor — акцептор протонов
decrease 1. [dɪ'kriːs] 1. 1) уменьшать ся, убывать, сокращаться 2) уменьшать,
сокращать 2. ['diːkriːs] уменьшение, убывание, понижение; убавление; снижение,
сокращение, спад
to decrease from … to … — уменьш аться с … до...
to decrease by … — уменьшаться на ...
to decrease in smth. — уменьшаться в (чём-л.)
to decrease pressure — уменьшать, понижать давление
decrease in prices — снижение цен
gradual decrease — постепенное уменьшение
sharp decrease — резкое уменьшение
steady decrease — неуклонное уменьшение
to be on the decrease — идти на убыль
Cryogenics
At very low temperatures (near absolute zero), many materials exhibit
strikingly different characteristics. At the beginning of the 20th century the
Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes developed techniques for producing
these low temperatures and discovered the superconductivity of mercury: It
loses all electrical resistance at about 4 K. Many other elements, alloys, and
compounds do the same at their characteristic near-zero temperature, with
originally magnetic materials becoming magnetic insulators. The theory of
superconductivity, developed largely by the American physicists John Bar-
75
deen, Leon N. Cooper, and John Robert Schrieffer, is extremely complicated,
involving the pairing of electrons in the crystal lattice.
Another fascinating discovery was that helium does not freeze but changes
at about 2 K from an ordinary liquid, He I, to the superfluid He II, which has
no viscosity and has a thermal conductivity about 1000 times greater than silver. Films of He II can creep up the walls of their containing vessels and He II
can readily permeate some materials like platinum. No fully satisfactory theory
is yet available for this behavior.
strikingly ['straɪkɪŋlɪ] поразительно, удивительно, замечательно
complicate ['kɔmplɪkeɪt] затруднять, осложнять, усложнять
to complicate matters — запутать, усложнить дело
complicated ['kɔmplɪkeɪtɪd] 1) запутанный; замысловатый; усложнённы й ;
трудный для понимания 2) сложный; составной
complicated problem — запутанный вопрос, сложная проблема
This case is more complicated. — Этот случай более сложный.
complicated equation — сложное уравнение
fascinate ['fæsɪneɪt] 1) восхищать, приводить в восторг, очаровывать, пленять
2) гипнотизировать
fascinating ['fæsɪneɪtɪŋ] обворожительный, очарователь ны й , плен ит ель ны й
permeate ['pɜːmɪeɪt] 1) а) проникать, проходить сквозь б) пронизывать, пропи-
тывать 2) распространяться
The rain will permeate through the soil and reach the roots. — Дождь просочится
через почву и дойдёт до корней.
His public speeches were permeated with hatred of injustice. — Его речи были
полны ненависти к несправедливости.
New ways of thinking are permeating among the students. — Среди студентов
распространяются новые взгляды.
satisfactory [ˌsætɪs'fækt(R)rɪ] удовлетво р и те ль н ы й ; до ст ат оч н ы й
satisfactory result — удовлетворительный результат
Plasma Physics
A plasma is any substance (usually a gas) whose atoms have one or more
electrons detached and therefore become ionized. The detached electrons remain, however, in the gas volume that in an overall sense remains electrically
neutral. The ionization can be effected by the introduction of large concentra-
76
tions of energy, such as bombardment with fast external electrons, irradiation
with laser light, or by heating the gas to very high temperatures. The individually charged plasma particles respond to electric and magnetic fields and can
therefore be manipulated and contained.
Plasmas are found in gas-filled light sources, such as a neon lamp, in interstellar space where residual hydrogen is ionized by radiation, and in stars
whose great interior temperatures produce a high degree of ionization, a process closely connected with the nuclear fusion that supplies the energy of stars.
For the hydrogen nuclei to fuse into heavier nuclei, they must be fast enough to
overcome their mutual electric repulsion. This implies high temperature (millions of degrees) when the hydrogen ionizes into a plasma. In order to produce
a controlled fusion, or thermonuclear reaction, it is necessary to generate and
contain plasmas magnetically; this is an important but difficult problem that
falls in the field of magnetohydrodynamics.
respond [rɪ'spɔnd] 1) отвечать 2) (respond to) а) реагировать, отзываться на
(что-л.)
Would anyone care to respond to the last question? — Кто-нибудь ответит на по-
следний вопрос?
to respond to the demand — удовлетворять спрос
manipulate [mR'nɪpjRleɪt] 1) манипулировать; умело обращаться; умело управ-
лять (чем-л.) 2) воздействовать, влиять (на кого-л. / что-л.)
manipulated — управляемый; регулируемый
interstellar [ˌɪntR'stelR] межзвёздный
interstellar space ship — космический корабль
interstellar space — межзвездное пространство
interstellar hydrogen — межзвёздный водород
interstellar extinction — межзвездная экстинкция (ослабление световых пото-
ков, проходящих через межзвёздную среду)
Lasers
An important recent development is that of the laser, an acronym for light
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. In lasers, which may have
gases, liquids, or solids as the working substance, a large number of atoms are
raised to a high energy level and caused to release this energy simultaneously,
producing coherent light where all waves are in phase. Similar techniques are
77
used for producing microwave emissions by the use of masers. The coherence
of the light allows for very high intensity, sharp wavelength light beams that
remain narrow over tremendous distances; they are far more intense than light
from any other source. Continuous lasers can deliver hundreds of watts of
power, and pulsed lasers can produce millions of watts of power for very short
periods. Developed during the 1950s and 1960s, largely by the American engineer and inventor Gordon Gould and the American physicists Charles Hard
Townes, T. H. Maiman, Arthur Leonard Schawlow, and Ali Javan, the laser
today has become an extremely powerful tool in research and technology, with
applications in communications, medicine, navigation, metallurgy, fusion, and
material cutting.
coherent [kR(u)'hɪRr(R)nt] 1) сцепленный, связанный 2) связный, логически последовательный 3) гармоничный, согласованный 4) понятный; ясный; вразумительный; отчётливый, разборчивый 5) когерентный
a coherent argument — логически последовательный довод
a coherent plan for action — согласованный план действий
a coherent passage — понятный отрывок
coherent light — когерентный свет
tremendous [trɪ'mendRs] 1) огромный, гигантский, громадный 2) классный ,
обалденный, потрясающий
"Was it fun?" - "Tremendous." — "Это было весело?" - "Потрясающе."
extremely [ɪks'triːmlɪ ], [eks'triːmlɪ] чрезвычайно, крайне, в высшей степени;
очень
extremely funny — чрезвычайно смешной
Astrophysics
The construction of large and specially designed optical telescopes has led
to the discovery of new stellar objects, including a number of quasars, which
are billions of light-years away, and has led to a better understanding of the
structure of the universe. Radio astronomy has yielded other important discoveries, such as pulsars and the cosmic background radiation, which probably
dates from the origin of the universe. The evolutionary history of the stars is
now well understood in terms of nuclear reactions. As a result of recent observations and theoretical calculations, the belief is now widely held that all matter was originally in one dense location and that about 14 billion years ago it
78
exploded in one titanic event often called the big bang. The aftereffects of the
explosion have led to a universe that appears to be still expanding. A puzzling
aspect of this universe, recently revealed, is that the galaxies are not uniformly
distributed. Instead, vast voids are bordered by galactic clusters shaped like
filaments. The pattern of these voids and filaments lends itself to nonlinear
mathematical analysis of the sort used in chaos theory.
stellar ['stelR] 1) звёздный 2) звездообразный
observation [ˌɔbzR'veɪʃ(R)n] 1) наблюдение 2) замечание
empirical observation — эмпирическое наблюдение
scientific observation — научное наблюдение
to keep under observation — держать под наблюдением
observation by incident light — наблюдение в отраженном свете
observation by transmitted light — наблюдение в проходящем свете
position by observation — наблюдаемое положение under
observation — под наблюдением; наблюдаемый
within the accuracy of observation — в пределах точности результатов наблю-
дений
belief [bɪ'liːf] 1) вера; доверие 2) мнение, у б еждение
in the belief that... — с надеждой на то, что...
it staggers belief — этому трудно поверить
to express a belief — выразить доверие (кому-л.)
to the best of my belief — насколько мне известно
to hold to a belief — твердо держаться (какого-л.) убеждения
erroneous / false / mistaken belief — ошибочное убеждение
firm / strong / unshakable belief — твёрдое убеждение, непоколебимая вера
unpopular belief — непопулярное мнение, нераспространённое мнение
probability belief доверительная вероятность
dense [den(t)s] 1) плот ны й ; сжатый; густой, частый 2) густой, плотный; непро-
зрачный
Oxygen is quite a dense gas. — Кислород - довольно плотный газ.
aftereffect ['ɑːftR(r)ɪˌfekt] 1) последствие; результат, выявившийся позднее 2)
(aftereffects) побочное действие
elastic aftereffect — упругое последействие
flow with aftereffect — поток с последействием
flow without aftereffect — поток без последействия
79
puzzle ['pʌzl] 1. 1) вопрос, ставящий в тупик; головоломка, загадка 2) головоломка (игрушка) , ребус, мозаика 3) недоумение, затруднение; растерянность,
замешательство 2. 1) приводить в затруднение, ставить в тупик; озадачивать
This question puzzles me. — Этот вопрос ставит меня в тупик.
He was puzzled how to act. — Он не знал, как поступить
mathematical puzzle — математическая головоломка
ring puzzle — меледа, сплетение колец
wine-pouring puzzle — задача о пролитом вине
80
Questions(Q) and Answers(A) About Physics
Q: How small are atoms?
A: Atoms are roughly 10
atom has a tiny core made of protons and neutrons. This core, called the nucleus, is even tinier, typically about 10
across. It is surrounded by a kind of cloud of particles called electrons. This
cloud brings the size of the atom up to about 10
-10
meter across—that’s 0.0000000001 meter. An
-15
meter (0.000000000000001 meter)
-10
meter. Notice that the nucleus is roughly 10,000 times smaller than the mostly empty electron cloud, so the
atom is in fact mostly empty space!
Q: Why is chaos theory interesting?
A: The aspect of chaos theory that captures the imagination is the idea of
unpredictability. Imagine a complicated system that changes over time, such as
the weather or a river flowing down a waterfall. Unpredictability simply means
that the outcome of some initial condition is practically impossible to predict,
even though it might seem that one could work it out if one knew all of the
mechanical laws governing the system.
For example, it is impossible to predict precisely what will happen to a
stick or a boat flowing smoothly down the river and falling down the waterfall.
A small change in the initial conditions can result in a completely different
outcome. The system is said to be chaotic.
The final state of a system may be important though and may depend crucially on the initial conditions. For example, a small hill or valley could chaotically affect the airflow in a geographical area, which would make it hard to
predict accurately whether a cloud will produce rain or a snowstorm.
Q: How would a fusion reactor differ from the nuclear reactors we
currently have?
A: The nuclear reactors we have now are fission reactors. This means that
they obtain their energy from nuclear reactions that split large nuclei such as
uranium into smaller ones such as rubidium and cesium. There is a binding
energy that holds a nucleus together. If the binding energy of the original large
nucleus is greater than the sum of the binding energies of the smaller pieces,
you get the difference in energy as heat that can be used in a power station to
generate electricity.
A fusion reaction works the other way. It takes small nuclei like deuterium
(heavy hydrogen) and fuses them together to make larger ones such as helium.
If the binding energy of the two deuterium nuclei is greater than that of the
final larger helium nucleus, it can be used to generate electricity.
Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]