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Файл:Физика (Physics). Английский язык. Тексты для чтения, перевода и обсуждения. Учебно-методическое пособие
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gain I [geɪn] 1. 1) а) добывать, зарабатывать б) выигрывать, добиваться, выгадывать 2) а) извлекать пользу, выгоду 2. 1) а) прибыль, выгода
considerable / enormous / notable / substantial / tremendous / tangible gain — значительная прибыль, большой доход
to gain in experience — приобретать опыт
to gain a prize — выиграть приз
to gain time — выиграть время
overall gain — полное [общее] усиление; общий [результирующий] коэффици-
ент усиления
immediately [ɪ'miːdɪRtlɪ] 1. 1) прямо, непосредственно 2) немедленно, тотчас
же, сразу, незамедлительно 2. как только
building immediately behind this tower — здание, находящееся сразу за этой
башней
You may speak immediately he finishes his report. — Вы сможете выступить, как
только он закончит свой доклад.
projectile [prR'ʤektaɪl] 1. (реактивный) снаряд (частица, бомбардирующая
мишень); пуля, бомбардирующая частица, налетающая частица 2. 1) метательный
2) способный выдвигаться снаряд,
breakthrough ['breɪkθruː] 1) проникновение внутрь (че рез барьер любого рода)
2) прорыв 3) резкий скачок / рост цен 4) достижение, успех, открытие
breakthrough into a crevasse — проход через расселину ледника
technological breakthrough — техноло гический прорыв
Particle Detectors
Detection and analysis of elementary particles were first accomplished
through the ability of these particles to affect photographic emulsions and to
energize fluorescent materials. The actual paths of ionized particles were first
observed by the British physicist Charles Thomson Rees Wilson in a cloud
chamber, where water droplets condensed on the ions produced by the particles during their passage. Electric or magnetic fields can be used to bend the
particle paths, yielding information about their momentum and electric charges. A significant advance on the cloud chamber was the construction of the
bubble chamber by the American physicist Donald Arthur Glaser in 1952. It
uses a liquid, usually hydrogen, instead of air, and the ions produced by a fast
particle become centers of boiling, leaving an observable bubble track. Be-
62
cause the density of the liquid is much higher than that of air, more interactions
take place in a bubble chamber than in a cloud chamber. Furthermore, the bubbles clear out faster than water droplets, allowing more frequent cycling of the
bubble chamber. A third development, the spark chamber, evolved in the
1950s. In this device, many parallel plates are kept at a high voltage in a suitable gas atmosphere. An ionizing particle passing between the plates breaks
down the gas, forming sparks that delineate its path.
A different type of detector, the discharge counter, was developed early
during the 20th century, largely by the German physicist Hans Wilhelm Geiger, and later improved by the German American physicist Walther Müller. It
is now commonly known as the Geiger-Müller counter, and although small
and convenient, it has been largely replaced by faster and more convenient
solid-state counting devices, such as the scintillation counter, developed about
1947 by the German American physicist Hartmut Paul Kallmann and others. It
uses the ability of ionized particles to produce a flash of light as they pass
through certain organic crystals and liquids.
accomplish [R'kɔmplɪʃ] 1) совершать, выполнять (напр. требования проектного задания); достигать; доводить до конца, завершать 2) достигать совершенства
3) делать совершенным; совершенствовать
to accomplish a promise — выполнить обещ ание
The work of the reformer was never accomplished so long as anything remained to
reform. — Работа реформатора не заканчивается до тех пор, пока остается что-то,
что можно реформировать.
furthermore [ˌfɜːðR'mɔː] к тому же, кроме того; более того
droplet ['drɔplRt] капелька, капля
spark [spɑːk] 1) искра 2) искровой разряд
tiny spark — искорка
to emit / produce a spark — испускать искры
delineate [dɪ'lɪnɪeɪt] 1) набрасывать, чертить, намечать 2) схематически изображать (то, что должно быть создано) ; делать набросок; набрасывать 3) очерчивать, обрисовывать, изображать
The exact position is delineated on the plan. — На плане отмечено точное местоположение.
commonly ['kɔmRnlɪ] 1) обычно, обыкновенно, как правило, в большинстве
случаев 2) плохо, посредственно
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convenient [kRn'viːnɪRnt] 1) удобный, подходящий; пригодный 2) близкий,
находящийся под рукой
convenient time — удобное время
scintillation [ˌsɪntɪ'leɪʃ(R)n] 1) сверкание, блеск 2) сцинтилляция, вспышка све-
та, вспышка
scintillation of wit — блеск остроумия
target scintillation — флуктуация цели
stellar scintillation — мерцание звёзд
Cosmic Rays
About 1911 the Austrian-American physicist Victor Franz Hess discovered
that cosmic radiation, consisting of rays originating outside the earth's atmosphere, arrived in a pattern determined by the earth's magnetic field. The rays
were found to be positively charged and to consist mostly of protons with energies ranging from about 1 GeV to 1011 GeV (compared to about 30 GeV for
the fastest particles produced by artificial accelerators). Cosmic rays trapped
into orbits around the earth account for the Van Allen radiation belts discovered during an artificial-satellite flight in 1959.
When a very energetic primary proton smashes into the atmosphere and
collides with the nitrogen and oxygen nuclei present, it produces large numbers of different secondary particles that spread toward the earth as a cosmicray shower. The origin of the cosmic-ray protons is not yet fully understood;
some undoubtedly come from the sun and the other stars. Except for the slowest rays, however, no mechanism can be found to account for their high energies and the likelihood is that weak galactic fields operate over very long periods to accelerate interstellar protons.
trap I [træp] 1. капкан , силок, ловушка; западня, засада 2. задерживать (улав-
ливать) , захватывать, ловушка
dust trap — пылеуловитель; пылезаборник
slag trap — шлакоуловитель
gas trap — газоуловитель
smash [smæʃ] 1. 1) шум, грохот (при падении) 2) крушение; столкновение 2. 1)
= smash up а) разбивать; крушить; ломать 2) ударяться; врезаться
The car smashed into a tree. — Машина врезалась в
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collide [kR'laɪd] 1) сталкиваться; соударяться 2) сталкиваться, приходить в
противоречие; конфликтовать
molecules collide — молекулы соударяются
The chairman's opinion collided with that of the rest of the committee. — Мнения
председателя и остальных членов комитета пришли в противоречие.
spread [spred] 1. 1) распространение the spread of nuclear weapons — распространение ядерных вооружений 2) разброс, рассеяние (разброс параметров, дан-
ных) , рассредоточение 2. = spread out — расстилать; развертывать; раскрывать;
протягивать
undoubtedly [ʌn'dautɪdlɪ] несомненно, явно, бесспорно
likelihood ['laɪklɪhud] 1) вероятность 2) многообещающая будущность
great likelihood — большая вероятность
little likelihood — небольшая вероятность
approximate likelihood — приближенное правдоподобие
estimated likelihood — оценка (значения) функции правдоподобия (в распознавании образов)
relative likelihood — относительное правдоподобие
Elementary Particles
To the electron, proton, neutron, and photon have been added a number of
fundamental particles. In 1932 the American physicist Carl David Anderson
discovered the antielectron, or positron, predicted in 1928 by Dirac. Anderson
found that the stopping of an energetic cosmic gamma ray near a heavy nucleus yielded an electron-positron pair out of pure energy. When a positron subsequently meets an electron, they annihilate each other with a burst of photons
of energy.
Discovery of the Muon
In 1935 the Japanese physicist Yukawa Hideki developed a theory explaining how a nucleus is held together, despite the mutual repulsion of its protons,
by postulating the existence of a particle intermediate in mass between the
electron and the proton. In 1936 Anderson and his coworkers discovered a new
particle of 207 electron masses in secondary cosmic radiation; now called the
mu-meson or muon, it was first thought to be Yukawa's nuclear “glue.” Subsequent experiments by the British physicist Cecil Frank Powell and others led to
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the discovery of a somewhat heavier particle of 270 electron masses, the pimeson or pion (also obtained from secondary cosmic radiation), which was
eventually identified as the missing link in Yukawa's theory.
Many additional particles have since been found in secondary cosmic radiation and through the use of large accelerators. They include numerous massive particles, classed as hadrons (particles that take part in the “strong” interaction, which binds atomic nuclei together), including hyperons and various
heavy mesons with masses ranging from about one to three proton masses; and
intermediate vector bosons such as the W and Z0 particles, the carriers of the
“weak” nuclear force. They may be electrically neutral, positive, or negative,
but never have more than one elementary electric charge e. Enduring from 10-8
-14
to 10
sec, they decay into a variety of lighter particles. Each particle has its
antiparticle and carries some angular momentum. They all obey certain conservation laws involving quantum numbers, such as baryon number, strangeness, and isotopic spin.
In 1931 Pauli, in order to explain the apparent failure of some conservation
laws in certain radioactive processes, postulated the existence of electrically
neutral particles of zero-rest mass that nevertheless could carry energy and
momentum. This idea was further developed by the Italian-born American
physicist Enrico Fermi, who named the missing particle the neutrino. Uncharged and tiny, it is elusive, easily able to penetrate the entire earth with only
a small likelihood of capture. Nevertheless, it was eventually discovered in a
difficult experiment performed by the Americans Frederick Reines and Clyde
Lorrain Cowan, Jr. Understanding of the internal structure of protons and neutrons has also been derived from the experiments of the American physicist
Robert Hofstadter, using fast electrons from linear accelerators.
In the late 1940s a number of experiments with cosmic rays revealed new
types of particles, the existence of which had not been anticipated. They were
called strange particles, and their properties were studied intensively in the
1950s. Then, in the 1960s, many new particles were found in experiments with
the large accelerators. The electron, proton, neutron, photon, and all the particles discovered since 1932 are collectively called elementary particles. But the
term is actually a misnomer, for most of the particles, such as the proton, have
been found to have very complicated internal structure.
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Elementary particle physics is concerned with (1) the internal structure of
these building blocks and (2) how they interact with one another to form nuclei. The physical principles that explain how atoms and molecules are built
from nuclei and electrons are already known. At present, vigorous research is
being conducted on both fronts in order to learn the physical principles upon
which all matter is built.
One popular theory about the internal structure of elementary particles is
that they are made of so-called quarks, which are subparticles of fractional
charge; a proton, for example, is made up of three quarks. This theory was first
proposed in 1964 by the American physicists Murray Gell-Mann and George
Zweig. The theory explains a number of phenomena, and physicists have collected a great deal of evidence of quarks in combinations with each other. No
individual quarks have been observed, however, and current theory suggests
that quarks may never be released as separate entities except under such extreme conditions as those found during the very creation of the universe. The
theory postulated three kinds of quarks, but later experiments, especially the
discovery of the J/psi particle in 1974 by the American physicists Samuel C. C.
Ting and Burton Richter, called for the introduction of three additional kinds.
annihilate [R'naɪRleɪt] 1) истреблять; уничтожать 2) отменять; аннулировать,
упразднять 3) аннигилировать
burst [bɜːst] 1 burst 1) лопаться; разрываться; взрываться (о снаряде) ; проры-
ваться (о плотине, нарыве) 2) (burst on / onto / upon) внезапно появиться 2. 1)
взрыв; разрыв (снаряда); 2) взрыв, вспышка (эмоций, активности)
The driver lost control when a tyre burst. — Шофёр потерял управление, когда
лопнула шина.
A dam burst. — Плотина прорвалась.
The door burst open. — Дверь распахнулась.
burst of a bomb — взрыв бомбы
burst in the water main — прорыв водопровода
burst of applause — взрыв аплодисментов
burst of energy — прилив энергии
burst of power — силовой импульс
grinding wheel burst — разрыв шлифовального круга
repulsion [rɪ'pʌlʃ(R)n] 1. 1) отражение (каких-л. агрессивных дейст вий) 2) антипатия, отвращение 3) отталкивание, расталкивание 2. репульсионный (напр. о
двигателе)
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intermediate [ˌɪntR'miːdɪRt] 1. 1) а) промежуточный, переходный б) средний,
занимающий промежуточное положение, находящийся между 2) вспомогательный 2. 1) промежуточное звено 2) посредник 3) а) промежуточное соединение б)
полупродукт
Intermediate examination — промежуточный экзамен (в некоторых универси-
тетах)
enduring [ɪn'djuRrɪŋ] 1) выносливый, терпеливый; устойчивый 2) длительный,
долгий, продолжительный 3) прочный; постоянный, стойкий
angular ['æŋgjulR] угловой
angular motion — угловое движение
angular point — вершина угла
angular velocity — угловая скорость
obey [R'beɪ] 1) подч ин ять ся, слушаться, п ови но ват ься 2) удовлетво рят ь условию уравнения
to obey the law / rules — подчиняться закону, правилам
nevertheless [ˌnevRðR'les] 1. всё же, всё-таки, тем не менее 2. тем не менее, однако, несмотря на; всё-таки
It will come to pass nevertheless. — Это всё-таки произойдёт.
elusive [ɪ'luːsɪv ], [R'luːsɪv] 1) неуловимый, ускользающий 2) уклончивый (об
ответе, заявлении) 3) трудный для получения, труднодостижимый 4) а) сл абы й (о
памяти) б) смутный (о воспоминании) 5) незаметный, эфемерный, мимо лётн ы й
derive [dɪ'raɪv] 1) получать, извлекать 2) выводи ть, получать. 3) устанавливать
происхождение, возводить (к чему-л.) 4) ответвлять, ставить шунт 6) извлекать
путём частичного замещения
The drug is derived from an African plant . — Это лекарство получают из одного
африканского растения
to derive a channel — организовывать канал
to derive azimuth — вычислять азимут
to derive equation — выводить уравнение
reveal [rɪ'viːl] 1) открывать; разоблачать 2) обнаруживать, показывать 3) выведывать
anticipate [æn'tɪsɪpeɪt] 1) ожидать, предви деть ; предчувствовать, предвкушать,
2) ускорять, приближать (наступление чего-л.) 3) предвосхищать, предугадывать,
упреждать 4) опережать, упреждать, предупреждать
to anticipate smb.'s wishes — предугадать чьи-л. желания
misnomer [mɪs'nRumR] неправильное наименование, ошибка в названии, искажение наименования
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It's a misnomer to call this village a city. — Неправильно называть эту деревню
городом.
concern [kRn'sɜːn] 1. 1) проблема; вопрос, требующий решения; забота, дело
(какого-л. лица) 2) интерес, участие, заинтересованное отношение 3) беспокой-
ство, озабоченность, настороженность, опасение 2. затрагивать, касаться, иметь
отношение
to have a concern in smth. — быть заинтересов анны м в чём-л.
as concerns — что касается
as concerns their demands — что касается их требований
The problem concerns us all. — Эта проблема затрагивает нас всех.
to whom it may concern — для предъявления по месту требования (в офици-
альных документах)
vigorous ['vɪg(R)rRs] сильный, энергичный; решительный
vigorous protest — энергичный, решительный протест
physically vigorous — физически крепкий; бодрый
It requires the most vigorous efforts. — Это требу ет сам ых энергичных
действий.
conduct 1. ['kɔndʌkt] 1. руководство, управление 2. [kRn'dʌkt] 1) вести, руководить; проводить to conduct a siege — вести осаду
to conduct an investigation — проводить исследование
to conduct a search — искать, вести поиск
subparticle — субэлементарная частица; субъядерная частица
entity ['entɪtɪ] 1) бытие, существова ни е 2) суть, существо, сущность Syn:
essence , substance 3) нечто реально существующее, данность, объект 4) существо,
организм; организация
geometric entity — геометрический элемент
physical entity — физическая сущность, физический объект
especially [ɪs'peʃ(R)lɪ] особенно, в особенности, главным образом
Unified Field Theories
The interaction between elementary particles—and if quarks exist, between
the quarks—is a more difficult area of research. The most successful theories,
thus far, are called gauge theories. In these, the interaction between two kinds
of particles is characterized by symmetry. The symmetry between neutrons and
protons, for example, is such that if the identities of the particles are interchanged, nothing changes as far as the “strong” force is concerned. The first of
the gauge theories applied to the electric and magnetic interactions between
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charged particles. Here, the symmetry consists in the fact that changes in the
combination of electric and magnetic potentials have no effect on the results. A
powerful gauge theory, which has since been verified, was that proposed independently by both the American physicist Steven Weinberg and the Pakistani
physicist Abdus Salam in 1967 and 1968. Their model linked the intermediate
vector boson with the photon, thus uniting the electromagnetic and weak interactions, although only for leptons. Later work by others (Sheldon Lee Glashow, J. Iliopolis, and L. Maiani) showed how the model could be applied to
hadrons (the strongly interacting particles) as well.
Gauge theory, in principle, can be applied to any force field, holding out
the possibility that all the interactions, or forces, can be brought together into a
single unified field theory. Such efforts inevitably involve the concept of
symmetry. Generalized symmetries extend to particle interchanges that vary
from point to point in space and time. The difficulty for physicists is that such
symmetries, while mathematically elegant, do not extend scientific understanding of the underlying nature of matter. For this reason, many physicists are
exploring the possibilities of so-called supersymmetry theories, which would
directly relate fermions and bosons to one another by postulating further particle “twins” to those now known, differing only in spin. Doubts have been expressed about such efforts, but another approach known as “superstring” theory is attracting a good deal of interest. In such theories, fundamental particles
are considered not as dimensionless objects but as “strings” that extend onedimensionally to lengths of no more than 10
-35
meters. Such theories solve a
number of problems for the physicists who are working on unified field theories, but they are still only highly theoretical constructs.
successful [sRk'sesf(R)l ], [sRk'sesful] 1) благополучный, счастливый, удачный,
успешный 2) преуспевающий, удачливый
successful experiment — удачный опыт
successful beginning — удачное начало
successful outcomes — благоприятные итоги
successful tests — успешные испытания
successful negotiations — успешные переговоры
highly successful — очень удачливый, преуспевающий
successful in business — имеющий успех в бизнесе
to be successful in smth. — преуспеть в чём-л .
70
He is successful in everything. — Ему везёт во всём.
independently [ˌɪndɪ'pendRntlɪ] независимо, автономно; самостоятельно
The two parts of the mechanism work independently. — Две части этого меха-
низма работают независимо одна от другой.
in principle — в принципе
unify ['juːnɪfaɪ] 1) объединять, соединять 2) унифицировать
unified — 1) единообразный; объединённый, единый 2) унифицированный
unified field theory — единая [обобщённая] теория поля
inevitably [ɪ'nevɪtRblɪ] неизбежно, неминуемо
doubt [daut] 1. 1) сомневаться, быть неуверенным (в чём-л.) , считать малове-
роятным 2) сомневаться, не доверять 3) бояться, страшиться 4) подозревать 2.
сомнение, колебание, нерешительность; неопределенность, неясность
'Do you think England will win?' - 'I doubt it.' — "Как ты думаешь, англичане
выиграют?" - "Сомневаюсь."
не верить to doubt one's own eyes — не верить собственным глазам
deep / serious / strong doubts — глубокие сомнения
reasonable doubts about smth. — законные сомнения (по поводу чего-л.)
to cast doubt on — ставить под сомнение
to dispel / resolve doubts — рассеивать сомнения
to express / voice (a) doubt — выражать сомнен ия
Nuclear Physics
In 1931 the American physicist Harold Clayton Urey discovered the hydrogen isotope deuterium and made heavy water from it. The deuterium nucleus, or deuteron (one proton plus one neutron), makes an excellent bombarding
particle for inducing nuclear reactions. The French physicists Irène and Frédéric Joliot-Curie produced the first artificially radioactive nucleus in 1933 and
1934, leading to the production of radioisotopes for use in archaeology, biology, medicine, chemistry, and other sciences.
Fermi and many collaborators attempted a series of experiments to produce
elements beyond uranium by bombarding uranium with neutrons. They succeeded, and now at least a dozen such transuranium elements have been made.
As their work continued, an even more important discovery was made. Irène
Joliot-Curie, the German physicists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann, the Austrian physicist Lise Meitner, and the British physicist Otto Robert Frisch found
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