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Файл:Стилистика английского языка. English Stylistics. Учебное пособие
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21
Chapter 1. Lexical stylistics
link words •• as though, as if and a subordinate clause of comparison
establish a slight similarity: They moved slowly as if they were tired after
a day’s job;
l e x i c a l m e a n s to express resemblance, e.g. verbs •• to resemble
to remindto seem to appear, and word combinations of the typein
a wayin a mannerin a fashion: He reminded James of a hungry cat.
Similes (like metaphors and metonymies) may become trite and
familiar, and fixed in dictionaries: as busy as a bee, as hot as fire, etc.
Simile must not be confused with logical or grammatical comparison,
which is not a stylistic device and brings together two things or objects
belonging to the same class.
Compare:
1. The boy is as tall as a pole – simile.
2. The boy is as tall as his father – logical comparison.
The function of simile is to create imagery and to add expressiveness
and emotiveness to the utterance.
Hyperbole (Lat. hyperbolē, from Gr. huperbolē – excess) is a deliberate
overstatement in which the vehicle is intended to intensify some idea (the
tenor) or a feature essential to the object or phenomenon (some quality,
size, duration, etc.) It differs from a mere exaggeration as it is not meant
to be understood literally, but to express an intensely emotional attitude
of the speaker to what he is speaking about. Its function is to appeal to the
imagination of the reader / listener by adding emphasis to the speech. It
may be also used to create a humorous or dramatic effect:
That has been said a hundred billion times!
A variant of hyperbole is understatement which is deliberately
intended to intensify smallness:
I don’t want to work for pea-nuts.
Many hyperboles have become trite. They are used in daily speech
without any specific artistic effects:
Haven’t seen you for ages.
I hate to trouble you.
It’s absolutely maddening.
I could sleep for a year.
Periphrasis (Lat., from Gr., peri- – around + phrazein – to show,
to see) is a roundabout way of referring to something by means of several
22
Part I. EXPRESSIVE STYLISTICS
words instead of naming it directly in a single word or phrase, showing a
new side of the object or phenomenon. In periphrasis a word directly
naming a thing (the tenor) is replaced by a descriptive phrase (the vehicle).
The main function of periphrasis is to convey the author’s purely
individual perception of the described object. Some periphrases are easily
decoded or familiar – they are called traditional or dictionary peri phrases:
my better half (= wife), a ship of the desert (= camel).
Real stylistic periphrases present a genuine impression of novelty, and
serve as a means of creating imagery. The essence of stylistic peri phrases
is in the fact that they become clear in a certain context:
I was earning barely enough money to keep body and soul together.
Stylistic periphrases can be divided into t h r e e t y p e s . They are:
logical periphrases – based on inherent properties of a thing:••
disturber of the piano keys (= pianist);
figurative periphrases – based on imagery (usually a metaphor or ••
metonymy): … the punctual servant of all work (= sun);
euphemistic periphrases (euphemisms): •• altitudinally challenged
(= short).
Euphemism (Gr. eu- – good + phēmē – speech, saying; euphēmismos –
to speak with good words) is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant
or a taboo expression by a less categoric and conventionally more accepted
one: under the influence, tanked up (= drun k).
S e m a n t i c a l l y euphemisms may be divided into:
moral: •• she has a new boyfriend, partner (= lover);
political: •• developing countries (= poor countries);
medical: •• bowel movement (= relieving oneself);
economic: •• redundant (= unemployed).
Euphemism as a mild substitution for a harsh or blunt (rude) expression
may soften certain phenomena, conditions, situations. As, for exam ple, it
may:
reduce (mitigate) age discrimination: old ••
third age, senior, ma-
=
ture, seasoned;
reduce property: poor ••
ill-provided, socially deprived, the
=
underprivileged, the disadvantaged, low-income people;
exclude discrimination by physical or mental drawbacks / short-••
comings, defects: cripple = differently abled, physically different,
23
Chapter 1. Lexical stylistics
bold = hair-disadvantaged, blind = unseeing, deaf = aurally inconvenienced, backward = learning disabled, mentally challenged;
reduce racial and ethnic discrimination: Negro ••
Self-control questions
Afro-American.
=
1. What is simile?
2. What is the difference between a simile and a logical comparison?
3. What is hyperbole?
4. What is the difference between hyperbole and understatement?
5. What is periphrasis?
6. What types of euphemistic periphrasis do you know?
GROUP III. PECULIAR USE OF SET EXPRESSIONS
(cliches, proverbs and sayings, epigrams, quotations, allusions,
decomposition of set phrases)
Cliché is a word or expression which has lost its originality due to its
overuse. Clichés are ready made units that became familiar and won
general recognition: rosy dreams of youth, let bygones be bygones, to
withstand the test of time. They may lack imaginative power but retain
emotiveness and evaluation: the whip and carrot policy, sky-rocketing
prices.
Saying is a generic term for what is often repeated like a proverb, an
epigram or an aphorism.
Proverb is a short well-known saying, expressing a well-known truth,
usually it sounds didactic. Brevity in proverbs manifests itself in the
occasional omission of articles and connectives:
Out of sight, out of mind. It is never too late to learn.
The stylistic use of proverbs is marked by their modifications: the
modified form of the proverb is perceived against the background of the
fixed form, thus giving it a new vigour. Compare the following
modifications with the proverbs you remember:
A Mars a day helps you work, rest and play.
An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
Decomposition of proverbs and sayings is often used for creating a
humorous effect:
24
Part I. EXPRESSIVE STYLISTICS
Never put off till tomorrow what you can do today → Never put off till
tomorrow what you can do the day after.
Too many cooks spoil the broth → Too many cooks spoil the figure.
Where there’s smoke there’s fire → Where there’s smoke there’s
pollution.
Epigrams are short condensed expressions in prose or verse, often
paradoxical or satirical, with a witty turn of thought. They have
a generalizing function. Their brevity, rhyme, alliteration make them
similar to proverbs. In most cases epigrams are statements coined by
some individuals whose names we know. For example, Mark Twain was
known for his epigrams:
Everyone is a moon, and has a dark side which he never shows to
anybody.
Training is everything: a cauliflower is nothing but cabbage with
college education.
Quotation is a phrase or sentence taken from a work of literature or
other piece of writing or spoken words and repeated in order to prove
some point or support an argument. Quotations are marked graphically
by inverted commas, dashes or italics and are accompanied by reference
to their authors. Especially frequent are quotations in scientific texts,
oratory, religious writings. The stylistic value of quotations lies in the
fact that they comprise two meanings simultaneously: the principal
meaning of the original surrounding and the new meaning acquired in
the new context:
Never cast your pearls before swine. – The Bible
Brevity is the soul of wit. – W. Shakespeare
Allusion is an indirect reference (a hint) by word or phrase to
a historical, literary, mythological or biblical fact which is presumably
known to the listener / reader. As a rule, no indication is given which
makes it different from quotations and epigrams. Allusion is a means of
establishing a cultural and literary tradition, a way of adding cultural
value to the utterance / text. As it is based on the cultural knowledge of
the writer / speaker, it presupposes a similar experience or knowledge of
the reader / listener. Allusions may function in texts as similes, epithets,
metaphors, periphrases:
She has a Mona Lisa smile.
25
Chapter 1. Lexical stylistics
As we have said, phraseological units (or set phrases) may acquire a
new life and a new expressiveness with the help of decomposition. There
are several ways of :
prolongation or inclusion: •• She took a desperate hold of his arm.
(from to take hold of);
interaction: •• There are words of a man who for some reason not
disclosed is fed up to the front teeth with the adored object. (from to be
fed up with smth. + to be fed up to the teeth);
substitution (partial or complete): •• Divorces are made in heaven.
(from Marriages are made in heaven.);
changes in spelling (attaining a new meaning and at the same time ••
preserving or imitating the phonetic form of the original set expression): Sofa,
so good. (from So far, so good.) an advertisement in a furniture shop reads.
The aim of set expressions (most of which have lost their imaginative
power) is to add expressiveness to the utterance, to prompt the reader /
listener to decipher more fully and clearly its meaning, to broaden his
culturological outlook.
Self-control questions
1. What types of set expressions do you know?
2. What is allusion? Cliché?
3. What are the stylistic functions of set expressions?
4. What are the ways of decomposing set phrases?
PRACTICE
ASSIGNMENTS FOR CLASS WORK
Assignment 1. Point out cases of metaphors and state their type in the
following.
Dax’s face was an unreadable mask.1.
New York was blanketed in a beautiful white snow ball, wrapped 2.
in silence.
The dome of the sky turned pink.3.
Her fears crowded back.4.
There was no shelter from the deadly hail of bullets.5.
Curzon’s head was beginning to swim.6.
26
Part I. EXPRESSIVE STYLISTICS
This achievement fires the imagination.7.
The politician understands the machinery of the government.8.
Assignment 2. Analyse the following cases of personification and their
formal indications.
It seemed that the Big Ben gathered himself together to tell London 1.
that it was five o’clock.
The morning smiled upon him: no fog, snow, rain.2.
The ship, for her part, began to think about discharging her mixed 3.
cargo.
The money and I barely had time to say hello and good-bye.4.
The earth awoke from her winter sleep.5.
It was a wild, cold night of March, with a pale moon lying on her 6.
back as though the wind had tilted her.
Through the open window the dust danced and was golden.7.
We must go through life so inconspicuously that Fate doesn’t 8.
notice us.
Turgis said nothing, but he had no need to, for his face replied for him.9.
The dark mouth of the tunnel beneath it opened and swallowed him.10.
Assignment 3. Match idioms with their meanings.
To be a cold fish1.
To fish for compliments2.
Like a fish out of water3.
a. there are other people to choose
b. suspicious or unlikely
c. to try to get someone to say
something good about you
To have other fish to fry4.
To be a fine kettle of fish5.
Fishy6.
There are plenty of other fish 7.
in the sea
d. uncomfortable, awkward
e. to have other opportunities
f. to be aloof, unfeeling, unso-
ciable
g. a real mess, a big problem
Assignment 4. Indicate metonymies, state the type of relations between
the object named and the object implied, which they represent.
The redcoats filled the village square.1.
Influenza raged. Theatres were full of coughs.2.
From No. 10 to the White house, Society has the same old 3.
anxieties.
27
Chapter 1. Lexical stylistics
She looked around: “Where did you leave your wheels?”4.
As they talked Guillerin noticed listening ears in the near rocking 5.
chair.
There was an exquisite Tiepolo and a Titian, and almost a full wall 6.
of Césannes.
The land belongs to the Crown.7.
You have a nice fox on you.8.
Carl’s at the ranch now. One of the hands saw him.9.
When the bell rang on the hour, the class stood and packed their 10.
bags.
Assignment 5. Analyse cases of irony in the following sentences.
I didn’t expect you back. – I can’t resist your charming 1.
hospitality.
The shop assistant had all the animation of a statue.2.
The sign read: Private. Private. Private. No trespassing. Violators 3.
will be prosecuted. – It made you feel warm and welcome.
I think you might be pretty good at your job. – I will write it in my 4.
diary tonight.
She ate one of her favourite cream-filled chocolate éclairs with as 5.
much pleasure as if it had been made of linoleum.
He discovered his money could buy anything but a good art 6.
review. – I weep for him.
He forced his smile back, but it had all the humour of a denture ad.7.
Minty stood by the window and eyed me with all the friendliness of an 8.
impatient axe.
Assignment 6. Differentiate between zeugma and pun in the following sen-
tences.
Sea captains don’t like crew cuts.1.
His heart and his love fled away.2.
Every calendar days are numbered.3.
I healed everywhere fast: bones, skin and optimism.4.
“Can I have a puppy for Christmas?” “Certainly, not. You’ll have 5.
turkey, like everybody else.”
He cleaned the blackboard with a gown and a grin.6.
28
Part I. EXPRESSIVE STYLISTICS
“Why is it hard to drive a ball?” “Because it doesn’t have a steering 7.
wheel.”
Both her clothes and her voice were loud.8.
She studied me with eyes shadowed by mascara and experience.9.
“What is Garfield’s favourite dog?” “A hot-dog.”10.
Assignment 7. Analyse the following examples of epithets and point out
their structure and type.
1. Sitting by his side, I watched the peaceful dawn.
2. I am not suited to the role of going around selling the life-can-be-
beautiful idea.
3. My careful steps reached the attic.
4. Manners expressed surprise by rising his eyebrows in his dome of
a forehead.
5. I’m ‘I say what’s on my mind’ person.
6. If this kid ever smiled with happiness, she would be radiantly beau-
tiful.
7. They drove the rest of the way in stormy silence.
8. We are living in an anything-can-happen world.
9. The girl gave him a lipsticky smile.
10. She was hopelessly, sadly, vaguely, madly longing for something
better.
11. I felt the stirring of sympathy in my stone-cold heart.
12. Then, if you were not going out, you had to choose between your
little box of a bedroom or the silent and inhuman drawing-room.
Assignment 8. Pont out cases of oxymoron and comment upon their
structure.
You were so splendidly furious, Jessie.1.
There were comments of the type women made that were indirectly 2.
direct.
This was a town he had cordially disliked since the war.3.
There was no sound but the joyful anger of the sea.4.
The sheriff lost his temper. He’s a hot-headed old youth.5.
She’s a holy terror, but she does mean well.6.
That’s old news.7.
29
Chapter 1. Lexical stylistics
He opened up a wooden garage. It was full of nothing.8.
It was an open secret that Ray had been cheating his father-in-law.9.
He is permanently in a state of dynamic inactivity.10.
Assignment 9. Analyse the following cases of antonomasia.
1. Come on, Bright Eyes. Drop the anxiety.
2. Monsieur Solidarity and Madam Silence rose to let them pass.
3. Cini told her some johns were paying for it.
4. He would, in time, earn decent money. He was Security.
5. Well, Mr. Idealist, you’re wasting your time. You’re also wasting my
time.
6. I thought I saw distaste on the face of Miss Efficiency.
7. “You can be a detective without being a bobby first,” replied Stanley
sco r nf ul ly.
8. Here’s my friend Sally planning her second date with Mr. Maybe.
9. A half an hour later Blond Curls escorted Mason to the host’s
study.
10. He’s an agreeable joe, but there is one thing that displeases me: he
makes nasty jokes about his friends.
Assignment 10. Indicate the leading feature of the personages character-
ized by the following examples of speaking names.
Mr. Methodical, Mr. Neat, Mrs. Newrich, Mr. What’s-his-name, Miss
Simplicity, Mr. Something-insky, Mr. Charming.
Assignment 11. Analyse cases of hyperbole in the following examples.
1. Some German words are so long that they have a perspective.
2. We honeymooned there, several thousand lifetimes ago.
3. She was about fifty, as tiny as a bird. I felt that if I sneezed I would
have blown her from one end of the room to the other.
4. Then he stepped forward with a large polite smile on his face,
displaying at least a hundred teeth.
5. Between us we ate a mountain of cakes, a bale of bacon.
6. He could sell ice to an Eskimo.
7. The nurse looked at him with her calm kind eyes which had seen all
the horrors and pain of the world.
8. Time seemed to stop. Each minute was an hour.
30
Part I. EXPRESSIVE STYLISTICS
9. There she was in pale yellow cashmere slacks and a white cashmere
skirt, the price of which could have fed and housed an average family for
a couple of years.
10. He could charm a gatepost into putting forth green shoots.
Assignment 12. Point out similes in the following sentences.
1. The silly boy behaves like a donkey.
2. He had a face that looked as though it had worn out four bodies.
3. They wandered about at random, in the manner of dogs that have
lost the scent.
4. She is like a bird of passage.
5. Gregor was looking at her as if she were some strange phenomenon.
6. Leila put on her best behavior like a fur coat.
7. Everything he had built could fall like a house of cards.
8. His smile reminded him of a rattle snake about to strike.
9. Undisturbed by swimmers, the water lay as f lat as a slab of green
glass in the sun.
10. The grey light clung about the trees of the Square, as though Night,
like a great moth, had brushed them with her wings.
Assignment 13. To complete the following colloquial similes, choose
the right words from the box.
Case 1 white quick hungry green cool black light fat
as ___ __ as snow
as ___ __ as a pig
as ___ __ as coal night
as ___ __ as grass
as ___ __ as a hunter
as ___ __ as lightning
as ___ __ as a cucumber
as ___ __ as a feather
Case 2 ice ABC fire a mouse a bee a kitten a lion honey
as strong as (a) _____
as easy as (a) _____
as cold as (a) ____ _
as playful as (a) _____
Assignment 14. State the type of periphrasis in the following sentences.
as quick as (a) _ ____
as busy as (a) __ ___
as hot as (a) _____
as sweet as (a) _____
1. The Prime Minister was set free from the cares of office.
2. I don’t think I’m quite over the hill yet.
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