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Файл:Грамматика английского языка для аспирантов. Учебно-методическое пособие
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higher level in information culture. The creation of the domestic computer
industry will allow a lot of problems in culture and education to be solved.
Among other things, we shall be able to organize the educational process in
the country's colleges and universities and also in the system of school education on a new basis.
Working out computerized models of materials studied by schoolchildren or students will allow us to see the results of this instruction on a display screen, make understanding of the material very simple and make the
development of a creative approach to the studying of knowledge and its
application easier.
As for the information in various traditional branches of knowledge
the application of electronics will allow side by side with the traditional
printed material to have the contents of books, magazines and articles fed
into the computer memory, where this will be analysed, arranged in a certain
order, stored and produced on request as a printed computer programmer.
Traditionally, the computer in business is used to process data. Now
the computer takes on new kinds of jobs. It has become more involved in
business operations as an essential tool in making decisions at the highest
administrative level17.
Tasks:
1. Find the sentences containing Complex Subject. Translate them.
2. Find the sentences containing Future Simple. State the Voice of the
verbs.
3. Find three examples of Participle II. Translate them.
4. Make up five questions about the facts stated in the text.
Text 7
REALISING THE HIGH-SPEED WIRE-FREE DREAM
Can you imagine pulling up outside a petrol station and being able to
instantly download an HD movie in less time than it takes to fill the car with
fuel? Or at home, wirelessly connecting together your TV, tablet, PC and
mobile phone and being able to shunt around huge amounts of data between
them without long waits. A California laboratory has been testing a new
technology that promises to turn these scenarios into reality. It is called
Wireless Gigabit – and the Santa Clara lab recently put so-called WiGig de-
17
https://lektsii.org/6-64716.html
71
vices through their paces to check they were interoperable. The event was
very successful. Participant companies were excited about their implementation of the WiGig specifications. It is another step along the road for the
high-speed wireless standard which was created in May 2009.
The standard was put through its paces at a PlugFest event in the
US. It operates in the unlicensed 60GHz spectrum band, which has little interference, meaning it can offer speeds far higher than traditional wi-fi - up
to 7Gbps (gigabits per second). This is a revolution in communication. It
offers tools that customers never had before. It is a game-changer in wireless
and in a couple of years who knows how many new applications there will
be for it. That promise has helped attract several high profile backers including Intel, Microsoft, Cisco and Nokia. The speeds offered by WiGig mean it
can shift data in a way that wi-fi can only dream of. Wi-fi networks are very
busy and over-crowded and cannot deal with bandwidth-heavy applications.
However, there is has one major drawback. WiGig's range is limited to between 10 to 15 metres – a factor that may prevent it being crowned the nextgeneration wireless standard. Its much shorter range means it isn't so much a
replacement for wi-fi as for cable.
Even so, the appeal of a cable-free future is obvious. People’s desire
for fast data downloads has caused countless living room corners to resemble spaghetti wire junctions. As devices continue to swap more data, more
often with a rising number of other products, there is a growing need for
faster wireless transfers.
Interconnectivity of devices in the home will be the key to utilising
the ever faster connections we can get because people want easy ways of
getting HD video from their camcorder onto their TV, and also onto their
tablets.
WiGig is not the only wireless standard offering high-speed data
transfers between devices. Ultra-wideband is also designed to carry large
amounts of bandwidth over short distances. But so far it has failed to catch
on. There are no standards for it and the industry has not really adopted it.
Meanwhile WiGig steams ahead. The adoption curve will be slower than for
wi-fi because it will rely on a whole ecosystem, and that will take a while to
put in place. At first we will see it in laptops and PCs and the peripherals
that connect to them18.
18
https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-15467740
72
Tasks:
1. Find the sentences containing The Infinitive. Translate them.
2. Find three sentences containing Present Perfect. Explain the usage.
3. Find three sentences containing Passive verbs. Define the tense.
4. Make up five questions about the facts stated in the text.
Text 8
BETTER METALS ARE VITAL TO
TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS
Since the earliest days the preparation of metals for mechanical use
was vital to the advance of civilization. Gold, silver and copper were the first
to be used by a primitive man, as they were found free in nature. Today we
know more than sixty five metals available in large enough quantities to be
used in industry.
Metals are mostly solids at ordinary temperatures and possess comparatively high melting points with the exception of mercury. They are for
the most part good conductors of heat and electricity, and silver is the best in
this respect. They can be drawn into fine wires and hammered into thin
sheets.
As to their chemical properties the first point to be mentioned is that
they vary widely in degree of chemical activity: some are enormously active
and others are inert. The Earth contains a large number of metals useful to
man. Of all metals to be utilized in industry iron remains by far the most important. Modern industry needs considerable quantities of this metal either in
the form of iron or steel.
To get the desirable characteristics in metal or to improve them the
art to mix metals and other substances began to develop. The first alloys that
were formed in this way were sometimes stronger, tougher, harder and more
elastic than the metals of which they were composed. To estimate nowadays
how many alloys there exist in the modern world is difficult because their
numbers increase daily.
To serve special uses modern metals and alloys must be lighter yet
stronger, more corrosion resistant, more suitable for automatic fabrication
yet less expensive than those available before.
Scientists are developing new processes and improving old ones in
order to produce metals and alloys that will meet the present-day requirements. One of the most interesting purposes is, for instance, to make metals
stronger, in other words, to strengthen them by reinforcing them with fibres.
73
Today transportation, communication, farming, construction and manufacturing all depend on the variability of suitable metals and alloys19.
Tasks:
1. Find the sentences containing The Infinitive. Translate them.
2. Find the sentences containing The Infinitive. Define the type of the
Infinitive.
2. Make up five questions about the facts stated in the text.
3. Pick out five sentences and make them negative.
Text 9
WORLD POTASH DEVELOPMENTS
Potash is a non-renewable resource that is a key ingredient in fertilizer
along with phosphate and nitrogen. Increased demand for fertilizers and potash has driven potash prices from US$96/tonne inSeptember 1990, to
US$203/tonne in July 2007, to a current US$495/ tonne (April, 2012). A
dwindling supply of arable land worldwide coupled with population growth
requires increased food production from that land. Potash helps improve
crop yields and enhances flavour, color and texture to crops used as food or
used to feed livestock. Increasing populations together with higher standards
of living in developing countries result in increased demand for food and
more protein from meat, as well as more fruits and vegetables. Developing
countries like China, Brazil and India have historically under applied fertilizers, so crop yields are low. Most of the world’s potash production has
come from a relatively small number of mines in the United States, Canada,
Germany, France, Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia. As of 2012, the leading
companies in potash production include Potash Corporation of Saskatchewan (PotashCorp), Uralkali, Mosaic, Belaruskali, Israel Chemicals Ltd.
(ICL), K + S, Qinghai Salt Lake Potash, Arab Potash Company (APC), Soc.
Quimica y Minera de Chile SA (SQM), Agrium, Intrepid, and Vale. Most of
the presently active mines were established in the 1960s and 1970s, so much
of their infrastructures are on the order of 40 to 50 years old.Price increases
since 2009 have encouraged mining companies to upgrade production capacity at those mines with extensive reserves. Mine expansion and brown field
exploration (that is adjacent to current mines) is another way to increase potash production capacity. Greenfield exploration has expanded with new pro-
19
https://studfiles.net/preview/4349155/
74
jects in Thailand, Laos, Russia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Belarus, Canada,
United States, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Congo, Brazil, and Argentina.
Companies involved include BHP Billiton, Vale,K+S, several governmentowned entities, and many, relatively new, junior companies. While greenfield exploration is valuable in defining new source sof potash, brownfield
expansion projects cost considerably less and new production from these
projects have ready access to existing infrastructure not likely present in
greenfield operations. During the latter part of 2012 potash price softening
has led to suspension of some of the greenfield projects and production shutdowns. A price turn around in early 2013 has strengthened the potash industry which is now looking at an upturn in prices through the remainder of the
year20.
Tasks:
1. Find the sentences containing The Participles. Translate them.
2. Find three sentences containing Present Perfect. Explain the usage.
3. Find three sentences containing Passive verbs. Define the tense.
4. Make up five questions about the facts stated in the text.
Text 10
CONFERENCE ORGANISATION
Professional conference organizers see great hope in the use of computers to facilitate making contacts at conferences. This new technology can
help both the young and the more established scientists find people with similar interests.
Conference participants reregister their specific areas of interest and
indicate their preferences for meeting in small groups or on a one-to-one
basis. Each participant can also indicate the times he or she is available. The
computer then matches parties with the same interests and schedule contacts.
Conferences can be computerized by using a message processing system. Groups of terminals could be set up at the conference site with assistance available to help participants use them. To retrieve your messages, you
would simply type your name and registration number. All messages for you
would either appear on the terminal’s screen or be printed out. Simple messages like “You left your coat in my car” could be stored. But, more important, a graduate student could ask, for example, if anyone at the confer-
20
Cocker M. D., Orris, G. J. World Potash Development, 2013.
75
ence would like to discuss his or her thesis topic. Or you could ask a question on a particular speaker that you didn’t have a chance to ask during the
session. The speaker could answer the question some time later. You would
find the answer when you interrogated the terminal the next day. This could
help young scientists participate more fully since they are often reluctant to
ask questions from the conference floor. In the meantime, young scientists
should try to discard their assumptions that eminent people are unapproachable. In my experience, I have always found that leading scientists were willing to talk for at least a few minutes21.
Tasks:
1. Find five sentences containing Conditionals. Translate them.
2. Find three sentences containing Modal Verbs. Translate them.
3. Find the sentences containing The Participles. Translate them.
4. Make up five questions to the text.
Text 11
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Composite materials include some of the most advanced engineering
materials today.
A typical composite material is a system of materials composing of
two or more materials that are mixed and bonded on a macroscopic scale.
For example, concrete is made up of cement, sand, stones, and water. If the
composition occurs on a microscopic scale molecular level, the new material
thus formed is called an alloy for metals or a polymer for plastics.
Generally, a composite material is composed of reinforcement (fibers,
particles, flakes, and/or fillers) embedded in a matrix (polymers, metals, or
ceramics). The matrix holds the reinforcement to form the desired shape
while the reinforcement improves the overall mechanical properties of the
matrix. When designed properly, the new combined material exhibits better
strength than would each individual material.
The addition of high strength fibers to a polymer matrix can greatly
improve mechanical properties such as ultimate tensile strength, flexural
modulus, and temperature resistance. Different materials are suitable for different applications. When composites are selected over traditional materials
21
http://window.edu.ru/catalog/pdf2txt/357/19357/2569?p_page=5
76
such as metal alloys or woods, it is usually because of one or more of the
following advantages:
Cost
Weight
Dimension
Surface Properties
Thermal Properties
Electric Property
Note that there is no one-material-fits-all solution in the engineering
world. Also, the above factors may not always be positive in all applications.
An engineer has to weigh all the factors and make the best decision in selecting the most suitable material(s) for the project at hand.22
Tasks:
1. Find three sentences containing Modal Verbs. Translate them.
2. Find the sentences containing The Participles. Translate them.
3. Find three sentences containing Passive verbs. Define the tense.
4. Make up five questions about the facts stated in the text.
5. Pick out five sentences and make them negative.
6. Pick out five sentences and define the tenses of the verbs.
22
https://go.mail.ru/search?rf=7993&fm=1&q=composite%20mater
77
APPENDIX 2
Chemical element
Definition
H
Hydrogen
composed of the Greek elements hydro- and -gen
meaning 'water-forming'
He
Helium
the Greek helios, 'sun'
Li
Lithium
the Greek lithos, 'stone'
Be
Beryllium
beryl, a mineral
B
Boron
borax, a mineral
C
Carbon
the Latin carbo, 'charcoal'
N
Nitrogen
the Greek nitron and '-gen' meaning 'niter-forming'
O
Oxygen
from the Greek oxy-, both 'sharp' and 'acid', and gen, meaning 'acid-forming'
F
Fluorine
the Latin fluere, 'to flow'
Ne
Neon
the Greek neos, meaning 'new'
Na
Sodium
the English word soda (natrium in Latin)
[3]
Mg
Magnesium
Magnesia, a district of Eastern Thessaly in Greece
Al
Aluminium
from alumina, a compound (originally aluminum)
Si
Silicon
from the Latin silex, 'flint' (originally silicium)
P
Phosphorus
the Greek phoosphoros, 'carrying light'
S
Sulfur
Latin sulphur, 'sulfur'
Cl
Chlorine
the Greek chloros, 'greenish yellow'
Ar
Argon
the Greek argos, 'idle'
K
Potassium
New Latin potassa, 'potash' (kalium in Latin)
[3]
Ca
Calcium
the Latin calx, 'lime'
Sc
Scandium
Scandia, the Latin name for Scandinavia
Ti
Titanium
Titans, the sons of the Earth goddess of Greek mythology
78
79
V
Vanadium
Vanadis, an old Norse name for the Scandinavian
goddess Freyja
Cr
Chromium
the Greek chroma, 'color'
Mn
Manganese
corrupted from magnesia negra, see Magnesium
Fe
Iron
English word (ferrum in Latin)
Co
Cobalt
the German word Kobold, 'goblin'
Ni
Nickel
from Swedish kopparnickel, containing the German
word Nickel, 'goblin'
Cu
Copper
English word (Latin cuprum)
Zn
Zinc
the German Zink
Ga
Gallium
Gallia, the Latin name for France
Ge
Germanium
Germania, the Latin name for Germany
As
Arsenic
English word (Latin arsenicum)
Se
Selenium
the Greek selene, 'moon'
Br
Bromine
the Greek bromos, 'stench'
Kr
Krypton
the Greek kryptos, 'hidden'
Rb
Rubidium
the Latin rubidus, 'deep red'
Sr
Strontium
Strontian, a small town in Scotland
Y
Yttrium
Ytterby, Sweden
Zr
Zirconium
German Zirkoon, 'jargoon'
Nb
Niobium
Niobe, daughter of king Tantalus from Greek mythology
Mo
Molybdenum
the Greek molybdos meaning 'lead'
Tc
Technetium
the Greek tekhnиtos meaning 'artificial'
Ru
Ruthenium
Ruthenia, the New Latin name for Russia
Rh
Rhodium
the Greek rhodos, meaning 'rose coloured'
Pd
Palladium
the then recently discovered asteroid Pallas, considered a planet at the time
80
Ag
Silver
English word (argentum in Latin)
[3]
Cd
Cadmium
the New Latin cadmia, from King Kadmos
In
Indium
indigo
Sn
Tin
English word (stannum in Latin)
Sb
Antimony
composed from the Greek anti, 'against', and monos,
'alone' (stibium in Latin)
Te
Tellurium
Latin tellus, 'earth'
I
Iodine
French iode (after the Greek ioeides, 'violet')
Xe
Xenon
the Greek xenos, 'strange'
Cs
Caesium
the Latin caesius, 'sky blue'
Ba
Barium
the Greek barys, 'heavy'
La
Lanthanum
the Greek lanthanein, 'to lie hidden'
Ce
Cerium
the then recently discovered asteroid Ceres, considered a planet at the time
Pr
Praseodymium
the Greek praseios didymos meaning 'green twin'
Nd
Neodymium
the Greek neos didymos meaning 'new twin'
Pm
Promethium
Prometheus of Greek mythology who stole fire from
the Gods and gave it to humans
Sm
Samarium
Samarskite, the name of the mineral from which it
was first isolated
Eu
Europium
Europe
Gd
Gadolinium
Johan Gadolin, chemist, physicist and mineralogist
Tb
Terbium
Ytterby, Sweden
Dy
Dysprosium
the Greek dysprositos, 'hard to get'
Ho
Holmium
Holmia, the New Latin name for Stockholm
Er
Erbium
Ytterby, Sweden
Tm
Thulium
Thule, the ancient name for Scandinavia
Yb
Ytterbium
Ytterby, Sweden
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