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Файл:Грамматика английского языка для аспирантов. Учебно-методическое пособие
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6) Prof. Steinbeck was the first to speak.
7) Friedman suggested this interpretation.
8) Belov pointed to this possibility.
9) Henderson missed the chance to come with us.
10) Rutherford discovered the atomic nucleus.
Ex. 7 Speak about people who have made substantial contribution to
science. Begin your sentences with It was ... who.
Example:
1) It was D. I. Mendeleev who formulated the periodic law of chemical
elements.
2) It was Prof. Semyonov who started research on chain reactions.
Ex. 8 Emphasize the subject with It was ... that.
Example: Brown's report attracted most attention. − It was Brown's
report that attracted most attention.
1) These data confirms our hypothesis.
2) This method is the basis of our approach.
3) This property accounts for the reaction.
4) These facts deserve additional tests.
5) These findings are worth publication.
6) This situation causes certain danger.
7) New fact led to changes in the organization of research.
8) This discovery laid the foundations for a new theory.
9) This research provided the basis for further studies.
10) This theory provided the basis for our experiments
Ex. 9 Use It was not until... that to emphasize the adverbial modifiers of
past time in the following sentences.
Example: The first satisfactory theory of the atomic structure was formulated by 1911. − It was not until 1911 that the first satisfactory
theory of the atomic structure was formulated.
1) They were able to start the experiments in 2018.
2) Antibiotics were first used during World War II.
3) An intensive study of the atom began in the 20th century.
4) The law of gravitation was formulated in the 17th century.
5) Radioactivity became known in the 19th century.
6) The first clock was made in the 13th century.
7) The periodic law was formulated in the 1860's.
8) The first nuclear reaction was observed in the 1930's.
9) The first satellite was launched in 1957.
10) The nature of electricity became known in the 19th century.
61
Ex. 10 Read the text and translate it paying attention to the emphatic
constructions.
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev was a Russian chemist and inventor. It
was he who formulated the Periodic Law, created a farsighted version of the
periodic table of elements, and used it to correct the properties of some already discovered elements. It was not until 1863 that he predicted the properties of eight elements yet to be discovered. By that time there were 56
known elements with a new element being discovered at a rate of approximately one per year. Other scientists had previously identified periodicity of
elements. Not only John Newlands described a Law of Octaves but noted
their periodicity according to relative atomic weight in 1864, publishing it in
1865. It was his proposal to identify the potential for new elements such as
germanium. The concept was criticized and his innovation was not recognized by the Society of Chemists until 1887. Another person to propose a
periodic table was Lothar Meyer, who published a paper in 1864 describing
28 elements classified by their valence, but with no prediction of new elements11.
11
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev
62
Библиографический список
1. High Energy Intensive Materials (Propellants, Explosives and Py-
rotechnics): Part II: Pyrotechnics: учеб. пособие / Э. М. Муртазина
[и др.]. – Казан. нац. исслед. технол. ун-т. – Казань: Изд-во КНИТУ,
2014. – 132 с.
2. English for Chemical Engineers (Английский язык для инжене-
ров-химиков): учеб. пособие / Э. Э. Валеева [и др.]. – Казан. нац. исслед. технол. ун-т. – 2-е изд., дополн. − Казань: Изд-во КНИТУ, 2015. – 104 с.
3. Cocker, M. D. World Potash Developments, in, Conway, F.M.,
ed., Proceedings of the 48th Annual Forum on the Geology of Industrial
Minerals,Phoenix, Arizona, April 30 – May 4, 2012. Arizona Geological
Survey Special Paper №12.
4. Минакова, Т. В. Английский язык для аспирантов и соискате-
лей: учебное пособие / Т. В. Минакова. – Оренбург: Изд-во ГОУ ОГУ,
2005 – 103 с.
5. Английские времена. Времена в английском языке (Verb
Tenses) [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа:
http://www.correctenglish.ru/theory/grammar/verb-tenses/.
6. [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://la-
club.at.ua/publ/sintaksis_syntax.
7. Типы условных предложений в английском языке
(Conditionals) [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://studyenglish.info/conditionals.php#ixzz5C60Syyck.
8. Chemical engineering [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим досту-
па: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering
9. Минакова, Т. В. Английский язык для аспирантов и соискате-
лей: учеб. пособие [Электронный ресурс] / Т. В. Минакова. – Режим
доступа: http://window.edu.ru/catalog/pdf2txt/357/19357/2569?p_page=5
10. Essay on Global Warming for Students [Электронный ресурс]. –
Режим доступа: https://www.importantindia.com/11701/essay-on-globalwarming/).
63
APPENDIX 1
ADDITIONAL TASKS
Text 1
MY RESEARCH WORK
I’m an economist in one of the Orenburg auditing firms. My special
subject is accounting. I combine practical work with scientific research, so
I’m a doctoral candidate (соискатель). I’m doing research in auditing which
is now widely accepted in all fields of economy. This branch of knowledge
has been rapidly developing in the last two decades. The obtained results
have already found wide application in various spheres of national economy.
I’m interested in that part of auditing which includes its internal quality control. I have been working at the problem for two years. I got interested
in it when a student. The theme of the dissertation is “Internal quality control
of audit services”. The subject of my thesis is the development of an effective internal quality control system for audit firm services.
I think this problem is very important nowadays as a major portion of
public accounting practice is involved with auditing. In making decisions it
is necessary for the investors, creditors and other interested parties to know
whether the financial statements may be relied on. Hence there should be an
internal control of auditing operations for insuring the fairness of presentation.
My work is both of theoretical and practical importance. It is based on
the theory developed by my research adviser, professor S. Petrov. He is head
of the department at the Orenburg State University. I always consult him
when I have difficulties in my research. We often discuss the collected data.
These data enable me to define more precisely the theoretical model of the
audit internal quality system.
I take part in various scientific conferences where I make reports on
my subject and participate in scientific discussions and debates. For the moment I have 4 scientific papers published. One of them was published in the
US journal.
I’m planning to finish writing the dissertation by the end of the next
year and prove it in the Scientific Council of the Orenburg State University.
I hope to get a Ph.D. in Economics12.
12
Минакова Т. В. Английский язык для аспирантов и соискателей: учеб. по-
собие. Оренбург: ГОУ ОГУ, 2005. 103 с.
64
Tasks:
1. Read the text. Define the tenses of the verbs.
2. Pick out five sentences with different verb tenses and make them
negative.
3. Find the sentences containing Passive verbs. Translate them into
English.
4. Make up 10 questions about the facts stated in the text.
Text 2
GENERAL FEATURES OF PYROTECHNICS
Pyrotechnics are invariably intimate mixtures of finely powdered fuels
and oxidizers together with other additives in order to impart special effects
depending on the requirements. Pyrotechnic formulations burn very rapidly
when ignited as a loose powder. However, there are some applications where
controlled steady burning is required for a definite time and this is achieved
by compressing the mixture into columns surrounded by a relatively non combustible material so that combustion proceeds from one end to other,
layer by layer for a long duration.
Pyrotechnic formulations which are intended to produce gases, are
generally based on a carbonaceous fuel and an oxidizer and these burn to
form carbon oxide. On the contrary, ‘gasless’ pyrotechnic formulations are
more likely to contain metal powders or metal oxides. The most important
attribute of ‘gasless’ pyrotechnic formulations is that their burning rate remains largely unaffected by changes in pressure. Such formulations are suitable for use at high altitudes or under confinement. Pyrotechnic composition
is a heterogeneous mixture, capable of self-burning and giving when burning
light, smoke, heat, sound and other effects. Depending on purpose they are
divided into lighting, photo illuminating, tracer, incendiary, infrared radiation, signaling, smoke, gasless, gas-generating, igniting, whistling, imitating,
target marking, etc. Among the pyrotechnic compositions there should be
highlighted: fireworks, thermite compositions to impact on the supercooled
clouds and mists; gas-generating, pesticide compositions; those used for
producing refractory metals, heating food, protecting gardens; matchbox
compositions, shrinkage reducing compositions for the formation of shells
and cooling molten metals, etc. They are also divided into plasma, aerosolforming, heat and gas-generating.
Pyrotechnics are rarely composed of a single substance; the examples
are titanium tetrachloride (TiCl 4), red phosphorus (RP) and white phospho-
65
rus (WP). TiCl 4 reacts with moisture in the air to produce smoke which
gives a screening effect, not by combustion but by hydrolysis. On the other
hand, WP and RP burn in air to give a screening effect. Since these materials
react with atmospheric air or moisture to give special pyrotechnic effects,
these materials are classified under pyrotechnics. These are the examples of
a ‘fuel only’ formulation. The chemical reactivity of the ingredients and their
particle size have considerable influence on the ignition characteristics and
burning rates of pyrotechnics13.
Tasks:
1. Read the text. Define the voices of the verbs.
2. Find the sentences containing Passive verbs. Translate them.
3. Find the sentences containing Participles. Translate them.
4. Make up 10 questions about the facts stated in the text.
Text 3
PARTS OF A PRESENTATION
All types of presentations consist of three basic parts: the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. In general, the introduction should be
about 10–15 % of your speaking time, the body around 75 %, and the conclusion only 10 %. The old adage is that in the introduction you tell them
what you will tell them; in the body you tell them; and in the conclusion
you tell them what you told them. Let’s look at each part more in depth.
The introduction is the most important part of your presentation as it
sets the tone for the entire presentation. Its primary purpose is to capture the
attention of the audience, usually within the first 15 seconds. The best introductions are those that are creative and original, so use your imagination!
In this part you need to introduce yourself, usually just with your name,
your organization. Finally, you need to state what your presentation will be
about including the major points you will cover. In some cases you might
want to include why you selected this topic or what you hope the audience
will learn.
13
Муртазина Э. М. High Energy Intensive Materials (Propellants, Explosives and
Pyrotechnics): Part II: Pyrotechnics: учеб. пособие. Казань: Изд-во КНИТУ,
2014. 132 с.
66
The body is the main part of your presentation. This is where you explain your topic and where all your information is presented. The organization of the body is critical because the audience needs to be able to follow
what you are saying. A demonstration is the easiest to organize because you
can simply go through the steps in order. The audience must know what is
being done, how it’s being done, and why it’s being done. Illustrated talks
or speeches are usually organized by arranging major points and discussing
them. You should limit these major points to three to five. Arrange your
points in a logical order and then give information to support each point.
No matter how you organize the body of your presentation, you must
have clear transitions from point to point or step to step. There are many
ways you can help the audience identify these transitions. Count on your
fingers, step 1, step 2, etc. Use transition words such as then, next, finally,
or one reason, another reason, or first, second, third. Pauses are a good way
to emphasize transitions. Movement can also indicate a transition. Try
changing your position in front of the audience or switching posters.
Your conclusion should be short and concise. It should summarize or
highlight the main points you made or emphasize what the audience should
have learned. After your conclusion, you need to state your sources of information. These could include books, magazine articles, or interviews with
people.
Last, you need to ask for questions. Be sure that you repeat each
question before you give an answer. Not only does this ensure everyone
hears the question, but it gives you the chance to make sure you understood
the question14.
Tasks:
1. Read the text. Write out the sentences containing passive verbs.
2. Pick out sentences containing modal verbs. Translate them.
3. Find 5 sentences containing Participle 1. Translate them.
4. Make up 10 questions about the facts stated in the text.
14
Валеева Э. Э. English for Chemical Engineers (Английский язык для инженеров-химиков): учеб. пособие. 2-е изд., дополн. Казань: Изд-во КНИТУ, 2015.
104 с.
67
Text 4
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Chemical engineering is a branch of engineering that uses principles
of chemistry, applied physics, life sciences (microbiology and biochemistry),
applied mathematics and economics to efficiently use, produce, transform,
and transport chemicals, materials and energy. A chemical engineer designs
large-scale processes that convert chemicals, raw materials, living cells, microorganisms and energy into useful forms and products.
Chemical engineers are involved in many aspects of plant design and
operation, including safety and hazard assessments, process design and analysis, control engineering, chemical reaction engineering, construction specification and operating instructions.
Chemical engineering involves managing plant processes and conditions to ensure optimal plant operation. Chemical reaction engineers construct models for reactor analysis and design using laboratory data and physical parameters, such as chemical thermodynamics, to solve problems and
predict reactor performance.
Chemical engineering design concerns the creation of plans, specification, and economic analyses for pilot plants, new plants or plant modifications. Design engineers often work in a consulting role, designing plants to
meet clients' needs. Design is limited by a number of factors, including funding, government regulations and safety standards. These constraints dictate a
plant's choice of process, materials and equipment.
Plant construction is coordinated by project engineers and project
managers depending on the size of the investment. A chemical engineer may
do the job of project engineer full-time or part of the time, which requires
additional training and job skills, or act as a consultant to the project group.
In USA the education of chemical engineering graduates from the Baccalaureate programs accredited by ABET do not usually stress project engineering
education, which can be obtained by specialized training, as electives, or
from graduate programs. Project engineering jobs are some of the largest
employers for chemical engineers.
A unit operation is a physical step in an individual chemical engineering process. Unit operations (such as crystallization, filtration, drying and
evaporation) are used to prepare reactants, purifying and separating its products, recycling unspent reactants, and controlling energy transfer in reactors.
On the other hand, a unit process is the chemical equivalent of a unit operation. Along with unit operations, unit processes constitute a process opera-
68
tion. Unit processes (such as nitration and oxidation) involve the conversion
of material by biochemical, thermochemical and other means. Chemical engineers responsible for these are called process engineers15.
Tasks:
1. Read the text. Write out the sentences containing passive verbs.
2. Make up 10 questions about the facts stated in the text.
3. Find three examples of Participle I. Translate them.
4. Pick out five sentences and make them negative.
Text 5
IF THE SUN GOES OUT
The sun is our source of vitamin D, it keeps the Earth warm enough
for life and it nourishes our plants so that we don’t starve, so life as we know
would change forever if the sun were to go out. The question for many is
“Can we survive if the sun goes out?” The final answer is simple, but the
hows and whys are often supposition based upon scientific speculation.
Right now, the Earth’s average surface temperature is about 80 degrees F (300 kelvin, which is how they measure it). Some scientists speculate that the surface temperature would drop by a factor of two every two
months. In other words, two months after the sun went out, the temperature
would drop to −189 degrees F (150 kelvin) and two months after that, it
would reach −325 degrees F (75 kelvin) and it would just keep dropping.
Other scientists speculate that it would take a bit longer than that –
within a week the temperature would be below zero and in a year it would be
−100. That would continue until the planet reaches a stable −400 degrees.
We could survive if we are only considering the heat and vitamins that
the sun provides. However, those factors aren’t the only problems or even
the biggest ones, that we would face if the sun were to go out.
The biggest optimists among us say that we may spin into another
galaxy and find another sun but let’s get real – the physics behind that aren’t
really something that could ever, within the realm of logic, promote such a
thing happening.
15
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineering.
69
Now we know that life would basically immediately cease to exist if
the sun were to go out all at once (which, by the way, is said to be impossible), what would happen if the sun just lost a bit of its shine?
This is actually considered a possibility among many in the science
community and would start a mini-ice age. In this case, we have a much
greater chance of survival. The reason that scientists are considering this a
remote possibility (or in some cases a very real possibility) is because the
sun cycles every 10–12 years due to moving fluids within the sun.
The problem here is that there wouldn’t be enough food grown in
those areas to support the local population and food transportation would
prove to be near-impossible because the road systems would collapse.
Therefore, farms would need to use greenhouses and breed animals that
would be more liable to survive perpetual winter such as cattle.
So, in conclusion, if the sun totally goes out (impossibility according
to physicists), we’d be screwed. If, however, we only have a reduction in sun
or a SHTF event such as a super-volcano, we could survive as long as we
were properly prepared16.
Tasks:
1. Find five sentences containing Conditional II. Translate them.
2. Find five sentences containing Mixed Conditional. Translate them.
3. Find three sentences containing Modal Verbs. Translate them.
4. Make up five questions to the text.
Text 6
WILL THE COMPUTERS THINK INSTEAD OF US?
One of main characteristics of the present – day global "computerization" is the boom in domestic computers. The desk computer is expected to
function as your personal librarian, carry out simple optimization computations, control your budget or diet, play several hundred games, etc. Further
development of the computer is believed to lead to a situation in which most
of the knowledge accepted by mankind will be stored in computers and
made accessible to anyone with a home computer.
Communication between man and computer will not replace man's
creative abilities but will expand them. It is natural that the advent of minicomputers with extensive memories and possibilities will lead to a new
16
http://www.survivopedia.com/how-to-survive-if-the-sun-goes-out/
70
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