Добавил:
ivanov666
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:International integration. Past and present. Учебное пособие
.pdf
2002). The agreement also provided the establishment of the
European Central Bank (ECB) which came into being on 1 June 1998,
and is located in Frankfurt (Germany). Together with the European
System of Central Banks (ESCB) and the national banks of the EU
countries, the ECB defines the monetary policy of the EU.
The Maastricht Treaty set five criteria which the economies of
the candidates for the EU membership must comply to:
1) Maximum level of the budget deficit – 3 % of GDP;
2) Level of public debt must not exceed 60 % of GDP;
3) Two-year participation in the mechanism of currency
regulation and maintenance of the national currency in a given range;
4) Limiting the rate of inflation to 1,5 % of the EU average;
5) Exceeding the long-term interest rates on the government
bonds not more than by 2 % to the average of the interest rates in the
EU with a minimum level of inflation.
Table 6
Some Economic Indicators of Major EU Members
State Budget
Deficit
(% of GDP)
Admission
Criterion
Austria 2,5 66,1 1,1 Yes
Belgium 2,1 122,2 1,4 Yes
Finland 0,9 55,8 1,3 Yes
France 3,0 58,0 1,2 Yes
Germany 2,7 61,3 1,4 Yes
Ireland –0,9 66,3 1,2 Yes
Italy 2,7 121,6 1,8 Yes
Luxembourg –1,7 6,7 1,4 Yes
Netherlands 1,4 72,1 1,8 Yes
Portugal 2,5 62,0 1,8 Yes
Spain 2,6 68,8 1,8 Yes
Source: URL: www.europa.eu/
3,0 60,0 2,7 Yes
National
Debt
(% of GDP)
Inflation
Level
%
Compliance with the
Limits of Exchange
Rate Fluctuations
The Maastricht Treaty also included the facilitation of the
cooperation in foreign and domestic policy areas. In particular, it
established three foundations (“pillars”) of the EU:
1) Further expansion and deepening of economic cooperation
within the Community, notwithstanding changes in its name;
71
2) Broadening of cooperation in the areas of foreign policy and
defense;
3) Cooperation in legal sphere, in the matters of asylum, and
immigration policies.
Article 2 of the Maastricht Treaty established a list of basic
European values common to all the EU members and policy makers
based on spiritual, moral, and historical heritage of the peoples of
Europe:
1) Pluralism;
2) Non-discrimination;
3) Justice;
4) Tolerance;
5) Gender equality;
6) Respect for human dignity, freedom and democracy, equality,
the rule of law, and human rights;
7) Respect for the rights of minorities.
On 1 January 1994, the agreement on the establishment of the
European Economic Area (EEA) came into effect allowing member
states of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) – Iceland,
Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland – free access to the EU
internal market without joining the Community. However, Switzerland
declined the participation in the EEA.
Since 2001, the negotiations were conducted within the European
Union providing a reform of the entire system of the EU institutions,
which culminated in signing the Treaty establishing the Constitution
for Europe (Constitutional Treaty) on 29 October 2004. This
agreement was intended to replace all previous agreements
governing the operation of the European Union. However, due to the
fact that this agreement was not approved by national referendums in
France (May 2005) and in the Netherlands (June 2005) it did not
come into force.
As a result, the EU leaders decided not to cancel all the
agreements signed previously but rather to supplement them with a
new agreement providing introduction of a number of provisions of the
Constitutional Treaty rejected in 2005. These provisions were fixed by
the Lisbon Treaty which was signed by all members of the European
Union on 13 December 2007, and came into force on 1 December
2009.
72
According to the Lisbon Treaty:
1) A vote on the basis of a qualified majority on a number of
political issues in the EU Council of Ministers was introduced;
2) Qualified majority ought to be defined in this case as a double
majority of the votes in the presence of a quorum;
3) Powers of the European Parliament, in particular, those
regarding the approval of the EU budget, were expanded;
4) European Parliament became bicameral;
5) Following positions were introduced:
A) President of the European Council;
B) High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy;
6) EU Charter of Human Rights became mandatory for all the EU
members.
Officially, the objectives of the Lisbon treaty were stated as
follows:
1) Improving the efficiency and democratic legitimacy of the EU
institutions;
2) Strengthening unity in the European Union;
3) Strengthening the system of checks and balances within the
EU due to the empowerment of the European Parliament.
At the same time, the Lisbon Treaty critics, for example, the
European Parliament member J.-P. Bonde (Denmark) pointed out that
in practice this agreement will:
1) Contribute to greater centralization of the European Union;
2) Weaken democracy within the association by reducing the
powers of the national legislatures in member countries.
Currently, the EU acquires such characteristics that attempts to
determine its legal nature provoke debate among the experts on
international and constitutional law. In particular, there is no dispute
that the European Union emerged as an international organization,
but at the same time it possesses many characteristics of a
confederation. However, since the EU has a number of features of a
federation some call it a de-facto federal entity. For example, the
characteristic of the European Union as an “unfinished federation”
became widely known due to German politician and lawyer
W. Hallstein, which means that the EU being a mature international
organization is evolving towards a federal entity.
73
Test Your Knowledge
1. What is the significance of the Single European Act for the
evolution of the EEC?
2. What is the value of the “Copenhagen criteria”?
3. What is the significance of the Maastricht Treaty for the
conversion of the EEC in the European Union?
4. What is the significance of the Maastricht Treaty for the
integration of the European countries in the area of finance and
credit?
5. Describe the formation of the European Economic Area and
its significance for the European integration.
6. Characterize the agreement on the introduction of the
European Constitution and its fate.
7. Characterize the Treaty of Lisbon and its significance.
8. Schengen agreement is:
A) An agreement on the abolition of control of the crossing of
internal borders within the EU and the introduction of a common shortterm visa;
B) An agreement on monetary union;
C) An agreement on the recognition of diplomas of educational
institutions.
Topic for Discussion
Try to define constitutional and legal nature of the European
Union.
Unit 6.3. Structure of the EU. The organizational structure of the
European Union includes:
1) European Parliament;
2) European Council;
3) Council of Ministers;
4) European Commission;
5) Central Bank;
6) Court of Justice;
7) Court of Auditors.
The European Parliament is a successor to the General
Assembly of the ECSC, which consisted of 78 MPs from the member
states operating on a dual mandate and had advisory powers only.
74
Today, the European Parliament consists of 751 deputies and is
elected by the EU population by direct vote for a term of five years
(since 1979). Thus, the 2009 election was attended by as much as
375 million voters in twenty-seven countries which were in the
European Union at this time
8
.
The work of the European Parliament is governed by a chairman
elected by the deputies for two and a half years (since January 2012 –
M. Schulz, Germany).
Technically, the European Parliament has no right of legislative
initiative. Its meetings are held in turn in Brussels and Strasbourg,
while the administrative staff is based in Luxembourg. According to
the results of the 2014 election, a center-right European People’s
Party and the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Social Democrats
possess the most numerous factions in the European Parliament.
The European Council of Ministers is an integral part of the EU
legislative bodies being in fact one of the chambers of the European
Parliament and consisting of ministers of the member states
governments with the jurisdiction over the issues discussed by the
Council, such as agriculture, transport, etc. The work of the Council of
Ministers is headed by a chairman elected for six months and
representing the country presiding over the EU.
The Council of Ministers of the European Union has a right of
legislative initiative for a limited range of issues. Usually, the Council
acts by qualified majority; however, its decisions are adopted
sometimes on the basis of unanimity.
The European Commission is an executive body of the EU having
the right of legislative initiative and managing the current activities of the
European Union. It is responsible for the practical implementation of the
EU decisions and monitors the execution of the treaties signed within the
European Union. The European Commission is a successor to the
ECSC Higher administration. Its headquarters are located in Brussels.
By the nature of its powers, the European Commission is an
analog of a government and consists of 28 commissioners, one from
each member state. It is assumed that each commissioner acts in the
interests of the EU as a whole rather than that of the individual state
which he or she represents. Commissioners are nominated by the
European Council and are validated by the European Parliament.
8
URL: www.europarl.europa.eu/
75
Fig. 5. The European Commission Headquarters in Brussels
The work of the European Commission is based on the
administrative staff including about 23 000 employees who are spread
across 33 general directorates and eleven services. The European
Commission is headed by the President whose candidacy is also put
forward by the European Council and approved by the European
Parliament (since 15 July 2014 – Jean-Claude Juncker, Luxembourg).
The main executive body of the EU is the European Council
which brings together the heads of state and government of the EU
members as well as the President of the European Commission.
Starting from 1975, the European Council is the summit of the EU
heads of state and government meeting at least twice every six
months in Brussels. Originally, the Council was an informal body and
gained its official status only in accordance with the Lisbon Treaty.
The European Council is headed by a Chairman accountable to
the European Parliament and elected for two and a half years with the
right of a single re-election. The chairmanship of the Council of
Europe is not the same thing as the post of the head of a state or a
government. Since 1 December 2014, this position is held by Donald
Tusk (Poland).
76
The European Central Bank (ECB) performs the following functions:
1) Defining a single monetary policy of the euro area which now
includes nineteen countries of the EU;
2) Maintenance of a stable price level in the euro area;
3) Banknotes issue.
Co-owners and shareholders of the ECB and the owners of its
equity capital are the central banks of the member states. Since
1 November 2011, Mario Draghi (Italy) is the President of the
European Central Bank.
The European Court of Justice represents the judicial branch of
the EU and consists of two main and several auxiliary courts.
Functions of the European Court are following:
1) Control over the legality of decisions taken by the various EU
institutions;
2) Control over compliance to the terms of treaties concluded
within the European Union;
3) Interpretation of the EU legislation at the request of judicial
authorities of the European Union members.
The European Court of Justice is located in Luxembourg and is
the successor to the ECSC Court founded in 1952. The European
Court of Justice is presided over by a Chairman elected by the judges
for three years by secret ballot.
The European Court of Auditors operates since 18 October 1977,
and performs the following functions:
1) Control over the EU budget spending;
2) Control over the quality of the budget spending management;
3) Conducting random checks of budget spending
documentation;
4) Preparing reports including the annual general report and the
report on funds spending by individual agencies and on specific
problems in this area.
The Court of Auditors is fully independent from other executive
bodies of the European Union and is accountable only to the
European Parliament. It includes one representative from each
member state nominated by the Budgetary Control Committee of the
European Parliament with a final decision taken by a simple majority
of votes, which is followed by their approval or disapproval in the
European Council on the basis of consensus.
77
The European Court of Auditors staff also includes about 800
employees consisting of accountants, administrators, translators, etc.
Members of the Court elect a chairman for three years with the
possibility of re-election, whose task is to guide the activities of the
Court of Auditors. Since 2007, this position is held by Victor Manuel
da Silva Caldeira (Portugal).
Test Your Knowledge
1. Outline the organizational structure of the European Union:
A) European Parliament;
B) Council of Ministers;
C) European Commission;
D) European Council;
E) Central Bank;
F) European Court of Justice;
G) Court of Auditors.
2. The supreme body of the European Union is:
A) The European Council;
B) The European Commission;
C) The European Parliament;
D) The EU Council.
Unit 6.4. European Budget and Some Economic Issues of the EU
Functioning. The EU budget is adopted for five years and is a source
of funding for the all-European programs, such as:
1) Common agricultural policy (46.7 % of total budget
expenditures in 2006 and 32 % – in 2013);
2) Supporting poor regions of the European Union (30.4 % – in
2006 and 36 % – in 2013);
3) Supporting education, media, energy, environment, culture,
youth policy, etc. (8.5 % – in 2006);
4) Administrative expenses (6.3 % – in 2006);
5) International cooperation programs, such as peacekeeping,
9
observer missions, humanitarian aid, etc. (4.9 % – in 2006)
.
In 2007–13, the EU budget amounted to 864.3 billion euros
representing 1.05 % of gross national income (GNI) of the EU; in
2007, the budget amounted to 120.7 billion euros (1.1 % of GNI), and
in 2010 – 141.5 billion. For comparison, in 1960 the EEC budget was
10
0.03 % of GNI of the association
9
www.europa.eu/
10
Ibidem.
.
78
For the reason of the economic difficulties, the European Union
decided in February 2013 to reduce the overall budget expenditures
by 3.3 % (about 100 billion euros) for the period of 2014–20
11
.
Budgeting of the EU is carried out by:
1) Council of Ministers of the EU;
2) European Commission;
3) European Parliament.
When budgeting, members of the Council of Ministers and other
institutions of the European Union are quite distinctly guided by
national interests of their home countries.
The main sources of revenue for the EU budget are following:
1) Traditional own resources of the European Union member
states which include the import duties on foreign goods;
2) Deductions from the value added tax (VAT) levied in the EU;
in 2007, the rate was set at 0.33 % from the base of VAT for each
country;
3) Deductions from GNI giving the bulk of revenue to the EU
budget the rate of which is set at 1.23 % of GNI which is about 76 %
of all the budget revenues;
4) Other incomes (some types of taxes, interest on deposits,
deferred payments, unexpended balances of previous years, etc.) –
about 1 % of total revenue
12
.
Today, the main donor countries to the budget of the European
Union are (in descending order) Germany, France, Italy, and the
United Kingdom; major donor countries with respect to their own GDP
are Denmark, Germany, Italy, and Finland.
The main beneficiaries of the EU budget in absolute terms are
Greece, Hungary, Poland, and Portugal, while the largest recipients
with respect to their gross national income – Hungary, Lithuania,
Luxembourg, and Estonia.
According to the statistical service of the European Union
(Eurostat), the total volume of the European Union’s GDP in 2012 was
$ 16.566 billion (12.894 billion euros) accounting for 20 % of global
GDP (purchasing power parity), thus making the EU the world’s
largest economy. The European Union is also the world’s largest
exporter and importer of goods and services
11
URL: Ibid.
12
URL: www.europa.eu/
13
URL: ec.europa.eu/eurostat
13
.
79
Huge regional disparities in the economic development existing in
the European Union should also be noted. Thus, the first place in terms
of GDP per capita in the European Union in 2012 was held by
Luxembourg (83 600 euros), while the last – by Bulgaria (5 400 euros).
However, the apparent success of the European integration
allows us consider the EU as a potential global superpower.
Test Your Knowledge
1. Characterize the EU budget:
A) Formation of the EU budget;
B) Main items of expenditure;
C) Main sources of funds in the EU budget;
D) Major donors and major recipients of funds from the European
budget.
2. Give a short description of the current state of the EU
economy, its achievements and problems.
Topics for Discussion
1. Significance of the single European currency introduction and the
establishment of the euro area for the European integration.
2. Main areas of cooperation between Russia and the EU.
80
Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]