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Файл:International integration. Past and present. Учебное пособие
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community as a key element of integration, thus assigning the
decisive role to social preconditions of international integration.
The feeling of community had been inferred from the
communication between individual states participating in the
integration project. Unlike his predecessors, Deutsch did not ignore
the role of a nation state considering it as a very important.
Deutsch considers the functioning of the communication networks
in which the exchange of useful information promoting the
accumulation of experience and implementing the necessary functions
of integration association takes place, as the main factor contributing
to the success of international integration. He identifies two types of
IOs designating them as “security community”:
1) Amalgam;
2) Pluralistic.
Amalgam community involves the merger of two or more
independent entities into a single IO with common institutions and
governance. Amalgam integration requires:
1) Loyalty to the institutions and governance of the emerging
community;
2) Understanding the complementarity of interests by the
population of the states participating in international integration;
3) Forming the similar lifestyle for all the participants of the
integration project;
4) Emergence of a new generation of political leaders.
Amalgam integration is based on the following grounds:
1) Set of prerequisites of social, economic, political, and cultural
nature;
2) Values shared by most members of society;
3) Long-term cooperation in various fields which results in
predictability of the integration project participants;
4) Clear understanding by the population of the integrated
entities of the benefits that international integration may provide.
Pluralistic integration allows a broad autonomy of the association
participants and does not imply any rigid framework for the integration
project. Deutsch has identified the following prerequisites for the
formation of pluralistic associations:
1) Coincidence of basic values shared by all the partners in the
integration;
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2) Readiness of the political life participants in the integrated
entities to operate without reliance on violence;
3) Mutual predictability of the association participants.
On the basis of his study Deutsch came to the conclusion that the
pluralist type of integration is more promising than the amalgam one.
Ultimately, the communication theory was not quite free from a
number of significant drawbacks. Thus, the problem of transformation
of a pluralistic model of integration into the amalgam one had not
been developed comprehensively enough, as well as that of
transformation of social, economic, political, cultural, spiritual, and
other prerequisites – into supranational institutions and governments.
The communication theory had also bypassed the problem of using a
variety of tools by different political and other forces to manipulate
public opinion in the matters referring to integration policies.
One of the weakest points of the communication theory was the
problem of the impact of communications networks on public
consciousness and especially on the mechanisms of decision-making
concerning international integration. In particular, the fact of the
presence of divergent opinions on international integration in a society
had not been taken into account sufficiently, as well as viability of the
identification with a nation state which often nullifies the impact of
communication mechanism.
Another founder and a prominent representative of neofunctionalism was Ernst Haas who recognized the importance of the
political aspects of international integration without considering the
latter as an exclusive merit of technocrats. Haas deduced integration
from a largely spontaneous activity of various political and social
groups who wanted, above all, to achieve their own goals.
According to E. Haas, a nation state is the resultant force of the
interests of various groups within society. In this case the area of
politics is considered as a kind of a market where various social
groups compete for the right to have a decisive impact on the
mechanisms of power and control. The decisive role in this scheme
belongs to the following:
1) Balance of political and other interests;
2) The problem of how the most important decisions are made:
A) Under the influence of the most powerful groups;
B) Represent a synthesis of the interests of the broadest strata of
a society.
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Neo-functionalists believed that one of the most important
outcomes of international integration is the so-called “transfer of
loyalty” of the most politically active social segments from national
institutions and governments to the supranational institutions.
Neo-functionalism considers direct interaction of civil society and
supranational bodies as a guarantee of success for international
integration, because it implies a significant reduction in the role of a
nation state as the only legitimate representative of the people. Thus,
the neo-functionalist idea of international integration implies going
beyond the traditional framework of intergovernmental organizations
and involving a
significantly greater number of actors in it.
One of the main elements of neo-functionalism was the idea of the
spill-over effect. This phenomenon means that the achievement of the
positive results from any specific steps in the field of integration is
possible only as a result of a sequence of similar steps in other areas, i. e.
a sort of chain reaction of actions and events that makes inevitable other
actions and activities, which further expand and deepen the integration.
The concept of spill-over effect was used to explain the
transformation of free trade area into customs union, that of customs
union – into common market, and their further evolution towards
economic and monetary union. However, neo-functionalists were far
from the idea that the spill-over effect can emerge automatically. They
believed that coordinated efforts were necessary to achieve maximum
results from which followed the idea of cultivating this effect. To be the
most useful the spill-over effect should address primarily those
industries where the benefits from it would be the greatest.
Test Your Knowledge
1. Functionalism is:
A) A methodological approach which involves considering the
society and its phenomena and processes as a social system with its
structure and mechanisms of interaction between structural elements
each of which performs its own function;
B) A form of government under which several public entities
legally possessing a certain political autonomy form a single union
state;
C) A form of government that exists normally in a multinational state.
2. Characterize the difference between the political and
technocratic levels of integration.
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3. Describe the role of technocracy in international integration
according to D. Mitrany.
4. Outline the main weakness of functionalism.
5. What is the feeling of community according to K. Deutsch?
6. Characterize the difference between the amalgam and
pluralistic types of international integration.
7. Outline the concept of spill-over effect.
Unit 2.5. Intergovernmentalist Answer. The 1970s saw the
slowdown of the European integration which was designated as the
period of “euro-sclerosis” caused by the rise of nationalism in the
European countries and the growing political differences between
them. Under these conditions the optimistic vision of the prospects of
integration within the EU which was characteristic for neofunctionalism and became predominant at the turn of 1950s and 60s
was disputed. This resulted in the criticism of neo-functionalism and
the emergence of the new approaches to the integration problems.
One of them was intergovernmentalism which emerged in the
mid-1960s and is characterized by:
1) Pluralism in explaining the motives of international integration;
2) Attention to social change as a factor influencing integration;
3) Recognition of a nation state as the main actor of international
integration.
For example, one of the most famous representatives of the
intergovernmentalism, Stanley Hoffman, stressed the importance of
public interest as a stimulus to participate in integration.
The intergovernmentalism is characterized by the division of the
area of politics into “high” and “low”. Among other things, the “high”
politics includes national and international security, the area where a
nation state is particularly reluctant to share its power. “Low” politics
covers economic issues and other areas, in which central role belongs
not to a state but to civil society.
According to the proponents of the intergovernmentalism, the
difficulties of the European integration in the 1970s may be explained by
the fact that at this stage it invaded the area of public interest and became
directly related to the issues of national sovereignty, which nation states
cede to the supranational level most reluctantly. That is why Hoffman saw
the willingness of a nation state to delegate security to the supranational
level as a criterion for success of the integration project.
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Intergovernmentalism focuses on the two contradictions
hampering effective integration:
1) Between national government and supranational institutions;
2) Between IO members, which arises from different approaches
to political and other actors not included into association.
The decision was seen in regular talks at various levels of IOs
which also emphasizes the importance of a nation state in the process
of integration.
William Wallace is another prominent representative of the
intergovernmentalism who analyzed formal and informal aspects of
international integration. He attributed cooperation in social,
economic, and other areas to informal aspects which do not require
either approval or involvement of political institutions, while the
establishment of institutions and governance of an integrated
community – to formal ones, as it requires involvement of ruling circles
of a nation state.
Wallace saw the interaction of nation states as a function of the
requirements of market economy and civil society reflecting the
enormous role of informal side of international integration. However,
he gave priority in the development of integration to formal aspects,
because:
1) Decisive role in the formation of institutions and governance
belongs to formal integration;
2) It is formal integration which creates necessary conditions for
informal integration;
3) Formal aspects of international integration help to preserve
the role of a nation state as a key decision-making center in the
course of integration.
Andrew Moravcsik is a representative of the liberal wing in the
intergovernmentalism who examined two levels of international
integration. To the first level he attributed the interests of various
social groups, their cooperation and influence on public policy
resulting in the formulation of objectives in the field of integration and
outlining the ways to achieve them (“integration demand” according to
A. Moravcsik). On the second level there is a transformation of the
integration demand into the international agreements on integration
issues which is achieved as a result of international negotiations at the
state level (“integration solutions” according to Moravcsik).
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Test Your Knowledge
1. Outline the difference between “high” and “low” areas of
politics.
2. What are formal and informal aspects of international
integration according to W. Wallace?
3. What is “integration demand” according to A. Moravcsik?
Unit 2.6. “Middle” and “Low” Theories of International
Integration. One of the schools of thought seeking to overcome the
limitations of the classical theories of international integration is
institutionalism which is characterized by the use of methodological
principles developed by economists. A central part of institutionalism
is the study of relevance of institutions which are formal and informal
statutes, regulations, and rules to the course of integration, as well as
of the organizations and governing bodies operating on their
foundation. Currently institutionalism is divided into three directions:
1) Institutionalism of rational choice;
2) Historical institutionalism;
3) Sociological institutionalism.
Proponents of the institutionalism of rational choice believe that:
1) Adherence to generally accepted standards greatly simplifies
the formulation of common objectives in the field of international
integration;
2) Existence of institutions contributes to the reduction in the
risks and costs of integration.
Proponents of historical institutionalism, in particular, Kenneth
Armstrong and Simon Bulmer emphasize the active and independent
role of institutions in international integration. Being formed in a
certain historical context and with the objectives relevant to this
context institutions continue to exist and function even after the
historical context had changed, thus actively influencing the course of
integration. The creation of the European Common Market may be the
example which would be impossible without the participation of the
European institutions.
According to the terms of sociological institutionalism, the world,
political views, and interests of the actors of international integration
are determined by the impact of integration institutions.
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The successful European integration in the 1980s gave rise to the
demand for more flexible concept of international integration able to
overcome the one-sidedness of traditional theories, which was
dictated by the need to find solutions for much broader range of tasks
than in the preceding decades. One of the concepts of this kind was
the theory of multi-level governance, the original theses of which were
the following:
1) There are many actors who influence international integration;
2) Notwithstanding all its significance, a nation state is not the
only actor of international integration;
3) All the actors affecting integration have their own competence;
4) Overlapping of a number of competencies of all actors
involved in international integration often takes place;
5) Cooperation between various actors forms the political
networks of different levels which overlap in the course of an
integration project implementation.
John Peterson, one of the most prominent representatives of the
theory of multi-level governance, analyzed three levels of decisionmaking in the European Union:
1) Super system level where the adoption of the fundamental
decisions which determine the fate of the IO takes place;
2) System level where the practical implementation of policy
decisions takes place which results in a change in the institutions and
governance of the IO;
3) Mesosystem level involves the formation of policies aimed at
the realization of integration projects.
From the perspective of Alex Stone Sweet and Wayne Sandholtz
the political organization of an integrated association may be
represented as a continuum including policies at the interstate and
supranational levels. The interstate part of the continuum
encompasses the traditional international relations within IOs, while its
supranational part includes common institutions and the governing
bodies of an integrated association. The position of all the institutions
and organizations of the association can be represented as a
particular point of the continuum depending on the following values:
1) Rigidity of formal and informal rules determining the
functioning of an IO;
2) Nature and structure of governing bodies;
3) Degree of integration within the association.
Initially aimed at the study of decision-making in the process of
integration, the political networks theory proceeds from the fact that
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the huge number of different actors operate on the contemporary
political scene among which an active exchange of resources and
information takes place. The result is a set of overlapping networks of
political and other interactions creating the conditions for broad
cooperation including international cooperation regardless of the real
balance of power of their participants. Integration institutions are one
of the political networks of this kind.
A notable acceleration and intensification of international
integration in 1980-90s generated the demand for new approaches to
the study of the problems of integration. The very paradigms that
underlie scientific understanding of international integration have
undergone a serious transformation. There is a trend toward the
diversification of methodological approaches, to the synthesis of
different concepts which were common for previous periods.
The predominance of any single theory remains in the past and the
interpenetration of traditional and new schools of thought takes place
which makes the picture of international integration more complete.
Thus, federalism still has not lost its significance for the study of
integration strategy, while functionalism and intergovernmentalism are
relevant to analyze the course of integration. If integration is on the
rise, then the methods of the intergovernmentalism are applicable, but
when it is slowing down the theories of neo-functionalism and political
networks may be applied. The aspiration of researchers to a more
targeted approach noticeably increases, which was uncommon for the
previous decades and is a result of growing complexity and ambiguity
of international integration.
Test Your Knowledge
1. Characterize the neo-institutional (“middle”) theories:
A) Neo-institutionalism of rational choice;
B) Historical neo-institutionalism;
C) Sociological neo-institutionalism.
2. Outline the new (“low”) theories:
A) Theory of multi-level governance;
B) Theory of political networks.
3. Trace the interdependence between the evolution of
theoretical approaches to the study of international integration and the
development of the international relations system.
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Chapter III
Principles of IOs Functioning
Unit 3.1. International Intergovernmental Organizations: Definition.
The concept of IO is usually applied to the associations with different
international legal framework. Therefore, the classification of IOs may
be carried out in accordance with various criteria. Thus, IOs may be
classified into intergovernmental (interstate, IGO) and nongovernmental (NGO) by their membership nature.
IGO is the association of states founded on the basis of an
international agreement in order to achieve any objectives established
under international law having a system of permanent bodies and
vested with international legal personality.
IGOs are subjects of international law acting on their own in the
international arena and not on behalf of their founders. They are
vested with full rights and obligations in accordance with international
legal norms. A nation state delegates a part of its sovereignty to an
IGO. However, the limitations of the international legal personality of
this sort of organizations should be taken into account as they operate
strictly within the limits of powers delegated by a nation state.
Formation of an IGO suggests the following:
1) Putting forward a proposal;
2) Working out constituent and organizational documents;
3) Forming organs and institutions of future organization;
4) Timing of its operation start;
5) Convening a constituent conference, congress, etc.
Although an international agreement as the start of an IGO creation
is more common, the formation of new organizations on the basis of a
decision of ones already existing is also not uncommon. In particular,
this refers to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
(UNCTAD), the United Nations Development Program (UNDP)
established by the UN decision as the autonomous organizations.
The common will of member states took the form of a voting on the
founding resolution which came into force at the time of its adoption.
The countries which are not the members of IGOs may send
observers to participate in the activities of the institutions within the
organizations if it is allowed by their charters. Some IGOs allow
accreditation of permanent observers to the countries not included in
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them. For example, the right to participate in the work of the UN as
observers now possesses Switzerland and the Vatican City.
As a rule, the budget of IGOs is being formed by the contributions
from the member states, less often – by the donations and assistance
from other sources. The amount of contributions is determined by the
economic might of member countries, the extent of their interest in the
organization, etc. IGOs may also initiate various programs and
activities which are funded on a voluntary basis.
The functioning of organizations ceases on the basis of a
common agreement of their participants. The dissolution of IGOs
assumes the conclusion of the appropriate intergovernmental
agreement. For example, on 28 June 1991, in Budapest, the former
CMEA member states signed a protocol on the elimination of this
association which operated since 1949. In a similar way, at the
meeting of the Political Consultative Committee of the Warsaw Pact
Organization in Prague on 1 July 1991, its former member states
agreed to the denunciation of the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation,
and Mutual Assistance of 14 March 1955, which meant the dissolution
of the organization.
Test Your Knowledge
1. Give the definition of IGOs.
2. Describe the process of formation / dissolution of IGOs.
3. What are the principles of IGOs financing?
Unit 3.2. International Intergovernmental Organizations: Features.
The main features of IGOs are the following:
1) Presence of three or more member states. This means that
the association of two countries is not an IGO formed to achieve
certain objectives jointly, but rather a union.
2) Respect for national sovereignty of the IGOs participants, noninterference with their home affairs. This feature may be considered
as one of the fundamental. It implies equal rights and obligations of
the participating countries irrespective of their economic and military
power, population, territory they occupy, and so on. No interference
with the internal affairs of the participants is admitted besides
situations involving violations of international law, the Charter, or the
international obligations assumed.
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