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Файл:International integration. Past and present. Учебное пособие
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It is believed that a decisive role in the integration of Russia with
the countries of the Asia-Pacific may be performed by the huge
territory to the east of the Yenisei River which is geographically
closest to this region. The main advantages of the Russian
Federation, including its eastern part, in terms of integration with
APEC are following:
1) Transit location between Europe and the Asia-Pacific;
2) Energy potential of the territory;
3) Wealth of natural resources.
Implementation of the first advantage, transit location between
Europe and the Asia-Pacific, depends on the development of transport
infrastructure as a key element of integration. It is owing to the high
infrastructural support of Russia, and most of all its eastern part, that
this country will be able to fully realize its transit potential in the long
run. Thus, the development of transport infrastructure will allow the
Russian Federation to significantly increase its trade with the AsiaPacific. Creating a full transport network should include the
development of the port, rail, and pipeline infrastructure.
In 2005, the ports of the Far East accounted for 17 % of the total
cargo turnover of sea trading ports of Russia. This indicator only
diminished in the subsequent years which of course could not
contribute to the increase of integration. Current lack of port facilities
for handling bulk cargoes, coal, and mineral fertilizers is quite evident
and became one of the obstacles to active cooperation between the
Russian Federation and its partners in the Asia-Pacific.
34
The elimination of port capacity deficit and transformation of the ports
of Primorsk and Khabarovsk regions into the actual participants of the
East-West transport corridor may be achieved through a number of public
and private projects. The implementation of the investment projects for
expansion and construction of the new port facilities should be carried out
in parallel with the railways expansion including the access ways. No
transportation of cargo handled at these ports to the central part of Russia
and Europe is possible without such a modernization.
The main traffic arteries in the east of the Russian Federation are
the Trans-Siberian and Baikal-Amur railways. However, their current
condition does not allow active developing of cooperation with the
Asia-Pacific and may become an obstacle to the development of trade
34
Rossijskaja akademija nauk. Institut mirovoj jekonomiki i mezhdunarodnyh otnoshenij.
Mirovoe razvitie. Vypusk 2. Integracionnye processy v sovremennom mire: jekonomika,
politika, bezopasnost'. M.: IMJeMO RAN, 2007. P. 73.
121
in the future. Thus, the construction of the new infrastructure may be
the only real way out.
The key to the development of the Trans-Siberian Railway is the
second stage of the construction of a 2,6 km long bridge across
the Amur River near Khabarovsk and then a repair of the tunnel under
the Amur. The most significant development projects of the Baikal-Amur
Mainline are increasing the capacity of the railway track section
Komsomolsk-on-Amur – Vanino as well as building a bypass around the
Kuznetsovsky passage and second railway tracks. The improvement of
border crossings in the direction of China and Korea is also being
35
planned.
It is difficult to overestimate the importance of the pipeline
transportation for Russia’s foreign economic relations. Nowadays, the
main project which is aimed at providing Russian role as one of the
main suppliers of oil to the Asia-Pacific is the oil pipeline Eastern
Siberia – Pacific Ocean. The capacity of the two pipeline phases is 80
million tons annually.
The energy potential of the east of the country including the rich
hydro-energy resources of the Yenisey, Lena, and Amur, the reserves
of natural gas and thermal coal allow Russians to become one of the
key exporters of electricity the consumption of which is increasing in
the Asia-Pacific each year.
Construction of the new power plants and modernization of the
existing ones allow meeting both the internal and external demand.
The implementation of the projects in eastern Russia will provide
additional beneficial effects in stimulating the economy in the east of the
country and reducing the costs of the distribution of power for export.
Such projects include the modernization of the Gusino-Ozerskaya
thermal power plant (TPP) in Buryatia whose capacity is 1,100 MW,
construction of the new power unit of 225 MW at the Haranorskaya
TPP in the Chita Region which will increase annual production to
1,3 billion KWh and provide an opportunity to export a part of
36
electricity produced to Mongolia and China.
Another project with export potential is the increase in the capacity
of the Neryungri TPP in Yakutia by 450 MW. The reconstruction of the
Primorskaya TPP will provide 660 MW of power and an opportunity to
37
export the energy produced.
35
Op. cit. P. 75.
36
Integracionnye processy v sovremennom mire: jekonomika, politika, bezopasnost'. P. 75.
37
Op. cit. P. 75.
122
There are projects aimed at the Asia-Pacific supplying with
electricity which could be implemented at hydroelectric power plants
(HPP). Thus, the completion of the Bureya HPP in the Amur Region (5
and 6
th
power units) is partly aimed at the electricity supply to China.
th
The South Yakutia hydroelectric power complex including four HPPs on
the tributaries of the Aldan River with total capacity of 5.000 MW will be
able to export power to the Asia-Pacific including Japan and China.
38
Resource wealth of eastern Russia includes oil, gas, coal, ferrous
and non-ferrous metals, and forest resources which are the basis of
the mutually beneficial cooperation between the Russian Federation
and foreign investors involving the implementation of major projects to
develop natural resources. This raw material may be directed to the
domestic market and abroad, but first of all to China, whose
consumption of these products is increasing.
Today there are dozens of projects to develop natural resources
of the eastern part of Russia. The most capital consuming and
attractive to investors from the APEC countries are oil and gas fields
due to the shortage of energy resources in the Asia-Pacific.
Projects in the coal industry also have export potential.
For example, the development of the Elga (Yakutia) and Elegest
(Tyva) fields will produce up to 40 million tons of coal annually which
may be exported to the APEC countries with low transport costs due
to their geographical proximity.
The fields of ferrous and non-ferrous metals in the east of the
Russian Federation are still not of great interest to the APEC
investors. However, the potential of Russian territory with regard to
this type of raw material is significant.
Forestry in eastern Russia remains attractive for foreign investors
and first of all for Chinese companies as a source of cheap raw
material, the wood products in lower stages of processing only, while
the development of a deep processing is still at the project level.
The latter includes the construction of pulp and paper mills which had
been stated by the representatives of the authorities of almost all
the forest-rich federal subjects in the east of Russia. However, these
projects are not implemented hitherto because of the need for a major
long-term investment.
Thus, the Far East and Eastern Siberia are key areas for the
integration of the Russian Federation into the Asia-Pacific.
38
Op. cit. P. 76.
123
Implementation of the main advantages of these areas will expand and
speed up the cooperation between Russia and the APEC economies.
However, some problems in the development of this cooperation
should be noted:
1) Increasing deficit in Russian foreign trade with the other APEC
members;
2) Growing share of raw material in Russian exports and the
consumer goods – in the imports.
One should agree with the opinion of some experts that a
promising area of cooperation is agriculture and labor migration, as
there is an excess of labor and lack of food in some APEC countries.
In July 2010, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev made a number
of proposals at a meeting on social and economic development of the
Far East and cooperation with the nations of the Asia-Pacific in
Khabarovsk which include:
1) Comprehensive approach to cooperation combining the longterm forecast for the development of the Russian Federation, in
particular, Eastern Siberia and the Far East, as well as the integration
processes that are taking place in Southeast Asia;
2) Development of industrial cooperation including the
establishment of the special zones in Russia which should provide
particularly favorable conditions for foreign investment;
3) Transition to an innovation-oriented cooperation in the energy
sector including oil refining and petrochemicals and improving port
facilities and much more.
Test Your Knowledge
1. Evaluate Russia’s accession to APEC and its significance.
2. What are the main directions and results of the development
of integration within APEC at present?
3. Where the APEC summit was held in 2012?
Topics for Discussion
1. Russia’s participation in APEC: the main areas of cooperation,
problems, and prospects.
2. The role of energy in the development of economic
cooperation between the Russian Federation and other APEC
members.
124
3. Transit potential of Russia’s eastern regions and its
participation in the integration processes within the framework of
APEC.
4. APEC Summit in Vladivostok (2012): goals and results.
CONCLUSION
International integration is a complicated process which is full of
economic, political, social, and other contradictions. However, it
represents a higher level of economic, political, social, and cultural
development of the world community of nations.
The nature of integration is not a mere unification of national
economies but also their inclusion into economic and political
cooperation which is based on the voluntary participation of the parties
as well as on mutual respect of their interests and benevolent attitude
to each other. This should contribute to the economic progress of the
humanity and to the creation of fair conditions for everyone.
Today, under the impact of globalization, the competition for
natural resources, for the control of communications, and other
benefits is constantly growing making the reforming of the system of
international relations and the entire world order increasingly urgent.
International integration helps to address two major challenges:
1) Stimulating economic growth and welfare of the participating
countries;
2) Maintaining political stability and lasting peace in the whole
world.
To be successful, integration must meet certain conditions,
primarily – realization of collective responsibility of all its participants
and providing an effective decision-making mechanism and
organizational framework.
QUESTIONS FOR CREDIT TEST
1. Explain a concept of international integration.
2. Analyze the significance of globalization as a major factor of
modern international integration.
3. Characterize the levels of international integration.
4. Identify basic types of integration associations.
5. Explain a concept of a stage of international integration.
6. Outline economic theories of international integration.
125
7. What are classical (“high”) theories of international
integration?
8. What are neo-institutional (“middle”) theories of international
integration?
9. What are new (“low”) theories of international integration?
10. Analyze the relationships between the evolution of basic
concepts of the international integration study and the development of
the system of international relations.
11. Describe the preconditions for emergence of IOs.
12. Outline the periodization of the history of IOs.
13. Characterize the international organizations of Antiquity and
the Middle ages.
14. Characterize the IOs in the 19
th
century.
15. Explain the significance of “Holy Alliance” as a type of
international intergovernmental organization of modern times.
16. Analyze the significance of the League of Nations as the first
global international intergovernmental organization.
17. Analyze the impact of the changes in the system of
international relations after World War II on the evolution of
international intergovernmental organizations.
18. Outline the main attributes of intergovernmental (interstate) IOs.
19. Identify features of non-governmental IOs.
20. Identify the main attributes of IOs of general and special
jurisdiction. Exemplify.
21. Outline the characteristics and significance of IOs
classification by their membership. Exemplify.
22. Outline the characteristics and significance of IOs
classification by their sphere of competence. Exemplify.
23. Outline the characteristics and significance of IOs
classification by the nature of authority. Exemplify.
24. Outline the characteristics and significance of IOs
classification on the basis of geographical coverage. Exemplify.
25. Identify the functions of IOs.
26. Outline the changes in the international system after World
War II. Explain the significance of regional and sub-regional
intergovernmental (interstate) IOs emergence in Asia and Africa.
27. Outline the history of the UN emergence.
126
28. Describe the organizational structure of the UN.
29. What was common and what was specific in terms of
organizational structure and activities between the UN and the League
of Nations?
30. Explain the significance of the UN “Oil-for-Food Program”
and the issue of corruption within the UN.
31. Explain the content and significance of the UN reform
projects.
32. Characterize the background of European integration.
33. Outline the origins, organizational structure, principles, and
objectives of the Council of Europe.
34. Analyze the significance of the Treaty of Paris (1951).
Describe the European Coal and Steel Community as the first stage of
European integration.
35. Analyze the significance of the Treaty of Rome (1957).
The EEC and EURATOM.
36. Outline the evolution of the EEC in the 1960s, its
achievements and discrepancies. Explain the relationship between
Charles de Gaulle’s policies as a president of France and the
contradictions within the EEC.
37. Outline the organizational structure of the EU.
38. Analyze the importance of the introduction of a single
European currency and the creation of the euro area for the European
integration.
39. Analyze the causes of emergence, purposes, and the
conditions of membership in ASEAN.
40. Outline the main directions of cooperation within ASEAN at
present.
41. Outline the reasons for creation, goals, and objectives of
APEC.
42. Explain the significance of the Bogor Declaration for
cooperation within APEC.
43. Outline the rules regulating the operation of APEC, APEC’s
organizational structure and its features.
44. Analyze the main trends, challenges, and prospects of
127
GLOSSARY
Customs territory is a geographic territory where the same
customs legislation is applied.
Ellinotamies were the officials of the Delian League whose task was
to collect monetary contributions from the allies (initially in the amount of
460 talents of silver, while during the Peloponnesian War this tax reached
1300 talents) and to manage the common treasury of the League.
Gross domestic product (GDP) is the monetary value of all the
finished goods and services produced within the territory of a certain
country during a certain period of time.
Institutionalization means the formalization of processes,
sustainability, and acceptance of a system of social relations
assuming various forms, for example, that of organization.
International division of labor involves the specialization of
particular countries in certain branches of production.
Internationalization is a phenomenon which involves various
kinds of exchanges, economic, political, or cultural between different
nations, as well as the relationships emerging in the outcome,
peaceful or conflictual, resulting in complementarity or competition.
Mercosur – the Southern Common Market (Spanish: Mercado
Común del Sur) is a sub-regional association whose full members are
six countries in South America – Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay,
Uruguay, and Venezuela.
Neoliberalism in studying international integration is a theoretical
approach attaching a great importance to the institutions in the
international system, that is to say, transnational actors (for example,
NGOs) or, in other words, everything which is not a nation state.
Developed in the 1970s by Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye in response
to neorealism, neoliberal theory like its namesake in the economic field
appeals to the game theory but should not be confined to it.
Production factors are inputs or resources used in the process
of finished goods and services production.
Structuralism is a school of thought which emerged mainly in
sociology in the middle of the 20
th
century using the term “structure”
perceived as a theoretical model focusing rather on the relations
between the basic units of a system than on those units themselves.
Supra-nationality refers to a political system in which certain
states cede to a greater or lesser extent some of its powers of
government to international bodies which affects more than one nation.
128
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
BSEC – Black Sea Economic Cooperation
CMEA – Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
GCC – Gulf Cooperation Council or Cooperation Council for the Arab
States of the Gulf
IAEA – International Atomic Energy Agency
NAFTA – North American Free Trade Agreement
NATO – North Atlantic Treaty Organization
OSCE – Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
SCO – Shanghai Cooperation Organization
UNESCO – United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization
UNICEF – United Nations Children’s Fund
WHO – World Health Organization
WTO – World Trade Organization
129
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10. Fazzone P.B. The Trans-Pacific Partnership – Towards a
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