A crucial component of regenerative medicine is bone tissue regeneration, which has the potential to significantly improve the lives of millions of people with bone illnesses and injuries. Traditional methods of bone grafting have drawbacks, such as inadequate host tissue integration and possible immunological reactions. Graphene, graphene functionalized materials, and its derivatives offer a creative answer to these problems. Graphene derivatives have the capability to form compos­ites with diverse structures, thereby enhancing their properties. This, in turn, directly enhances the functionality of bone-related cells or indirectly promotes them through external stimuli. Graphene derivatives can facilitate the growth and proliferation of osteoblasts, induce osteogenic differentiation of stem cells by activating specific signal pathways, and up-regulate the expression of specific factors in macrophages, hence ultimately leading to bone regeneration. The remarkable mechanical strength and biocompatibility of graphene make it a prime choice for applications involving bone tissue regeneration. Researchers have added bioactive chemicals and growth factors to graphene to functionalize it, promoting osteogenesis and improving the integration of grafts with host tissue. These modified graphene scaffolds serve

as precise drug delivery devices, dispensing growth hormones and osteogenic substances just where damage has occurred. As a result, bone regeneration is sped up, improving healing outcomes. Additionally, because of graphene’s electrical conduc­tivity, electroactive scaffolds can be created to promote bone tissue growth and nerve regeneration alongside bone healing [77, 78].

The intricate process of neural regeneration offers individuals with neurological diseases and traumas great hope [79]. The promotion of significant neuronal regen­eration and functional recovery is frequently difficult with conventional therapy. Graphene functionalized materials have become a fascinating approach to over­come these challenges. Because of graphene’s special qualities such as its electrical conductivity and capacity to promote brain cell growth, it is a desirable option for use in applications involving neural regeneration [80]. Researchers have successfully functionalized graphene with medicinal medicines and neurotrophic factors to help with neuronal regeneration and repair. In 2021, Qian et al. reported that graphene­based nanomaterials have little toxicity and can repair massive nerve damage in the central and peripheral nervous systems through dual control of Schwann cells and astroglia. By using 4% of graphene-based nanomaterials in the PCL matrix, it exerts low toxicity and displays a long-term effect of reparation. The toxicity still concerns researchers which may harm organs hence ensuing renal and hepatic failure, however, it is found that axon and myelin were repaired after the application of graphene­based scaffold implantation [81]. On the other hand, targeted medication delivery to injured brain tissues is made possible by these functionalized graphene carriers, which speeds up regeneration and promotes functional recovery. The restoration of sensory and motor functions in individuals with spinal cord injuries and other neuro­logical disorders has also shown promise for graphene-based neural interfaces and neuroprosthetic devices [82].

An important global health concern is the emergence of antibiotic-resistant microor­ganisms. Graphene functionalized materials offer a potential remedy for efficiently battling viruses that are resistant to medication. Researchers have created antibacte­rial nanostructured graphene composites by functionalizing graphene with antimicro­bial peptides and nanoparticles. These modified graphene materials have the ability to damage bacterial membranes, which results in bacterial death. Antimicrobial medi­cations can be delivered to specific areas of the body utilizing graphene carriers, which limits harm to healthy tissues and lowers the chance of systemic toxicity [88]. Additionally, graphene’s special qualities, namely, its expansive surface area and high loading capacity, make it a desirable choice for antibacterial applications.

must be resolved. Table 1 summarizes graphene and graphene-based materials with their unique application and features. As research advances, graphene functional­ized materials have the potential to transform contemporary medicine and usher in a brand-new age of precise and effective medication delivery.