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Carbon-Based Nanostructured Materials: Designing … 65
used CNMs in enzyme-based electrochemical biosensors, as they present susceptible surfaces that detect specific analytes. Numerous amperometry biosensors have
immobilized glucose oxidase (GOx) for glucose determination, as well as urease for
urea determination [42], as well to detect troponins, heart enzymes.
CNOs are used as electrochemical biosensors where glucose oxidase is immobilized. This use demonstrates that CNOs are a perfect material for developing biological sensors with enhanced response and sensitivity compared to existing sensors [42,
98]. Fullerenes C
and C70are used as carriers of various enzymes, such as ascorbate
60
oxidase in the biosensor system for the determination of ascorbic acid and phenols, as
well as urease in potentiometric biosensors for the definition of urea, or those based
on laccase for determining polyphenols in wine, the glutathione reductase-based
biosensor for determinations of glutathione, and a series of GOx-based biological
sensors for glucose determination in actual samples. The development of a simple,
sensitive electrochemical nanosensor based on lactate oxidase for the detection of
carcinoma 125 antigens (CA
) using chitosan gold/carbon nanotube multiwall/
125
graphene oxide nanoparticles (CS-AuNP/MWCNT/GO) was used as the electrode
substrate to increase the specific surface area of the electrodes and improve the immobilization of proteins and electrochemical performance in terms of H
2O2
oxidation.
The uses of carbon nanotubules and multi-layer fullerene as nanocarbon structures
are unique. It can form small-sized structures with null toxicity. The surfaces of
CNOs are conjugated with fluorescent molecules inks and are used for biomedical
applications. Passivationof the surface by inserting the carboxyl and hydroxyl groups
generated photoluminescence from CNO [42].
6 Challenges and Future Perspectives
This chapter has applied carbon-based nanomaterials to various areas due to their
unique thermal, mechanical, optoelectronic, and antibacterial properties. In addition, the stability of its structures, such as carbon nanodots or fullerene (0D), carbon
nanotubes (1D), graphene (2D), and diamond (3D), has generated the possibility
of obtaining nanohybrid materials with inorganic compounds and integrated into
numerous technological applications, such as the development of innovative technology in the design of electronic devices, energy conversion, photocatalysts, and in
the biomedical area. The perspectivesto consider are that the attention and application
of these nanomaterials will increase, especially in medicine and in the development
of batteries and photocatalysts in environmental processes.
However, studies are still needed to generate and apply these nanomaterials in
advanced technologies. A critical perspective is the manufacture of advanced materials that can be applied, for example, in the design and manufacture of suits for
astronauts’ electronic devices and the design and construction of biosensors that
allow diseases to be detected in time. Undoubtedly, studies are still being developed to establish its safe use and rule out adverse effects and toxicological damage
that could cause human health and environmental damage in its various ecosystems.
66 V. Esparza-Cordero et al.
Furthermore, in the same way, look for synthetic alternatives that are friendly and
safe for the environment.
7 Concluding Remarks
Carbon-based materials have multiple applications derived from their different crystalline structures. Furthermore, as it is the most abundant element on the planet, it
can be used individually or in conjunction with other hybrid materials to be applied
as a base for solar cells, as a photocatalyst, in the design and construction of biosensors, in the health area, as already mentioned. We study image detection and other
environmental and technological applications.
Acknowledgements Blanca L. Martínez-Vargas and Alain R. Picos-Benítez gratefully acknowledge financial support from Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN) for the projects identified as
20230040 and 20231345. Also, the authors want to acknowledge the financial support in the project
identified as CF-2023-I-2483, approved by the Consejo Nacional de Humanidades, Cienciasy
Tecnologías.
Conflict of Interest The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest in publishing this
article.
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Drug Delivery System and Technologies
Wei Guo, Peng Ding, Oseweuba Valentine Okoro, Yanfang Sun,
Guohua Jiang, Amin Shavandi, and Lei Nie
Abstract Active pharmaceutics could be encapsulated and released via drug
delivery systems for biomedical applications. Conventional drug delivery technologies such as capsules, tablets, ointments, syrups, granules, etc., are challenging
to accomplish sustained release and accurately target the specific location. In
this chapter, the advanced drug delivery systems, including micelles, hydrogels,
dendrimers, nanosponges, nanoemulsion, nanoparticles, liposomes, nanosphere/
microspheres, and aptamer, are discussed. In particular, the designing of a controlled
and sustained drug delivery system is emphasized. Furthermore, the strategies based
on active and passive drug delivery, intravenous and extraneous drug delivery, are
summarized. Various types of drug delivery technologies are introduced, including
oral drug delivery, nasal drug delivery, rectal drug delivery, ocular drug delivery,
vaginal drug delivery, and so on. In conclusion, future outlooks of advanced drug
delivery systems and technologies, to facilitate the designing of new-generation drug
formulations are also explored.
Keywords Drug delivery system
·
Capsule·Hydrogel·Nasal drug delivery
·
Oral drug delivery
W. G uo · P. Di ng · L. Nie (B)
College of Life Sciences, Xinyang Normal University, Xinyang 464000, China
e-mail: nielei@xynu.edu.cn
O. Valentine Okoro · A. Shavandi
Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), École polytechnique de Bruxelles, 3BIO-BioMatter, Avenue
F.D. Roosevelt, 50 - CP 165/61, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
Y. Sun
College of Life Sciences and Medicine, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
G. Jiang
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018,
China
International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Intelligent Biomaterials and
Functional Fibers of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
73
74 W. G uo e t al .
1 Introduction
A drug delivery system (DDS) is an important carrier that is used for drug administration to improve the therapeutic effect in humans or animals. This process involves
applying the therapeutic substance, releasing the bioactive component from the
substance, and transporting the active ingredient through the biofilm t o reach the
target location. Drugs are commonly used for systemic action or targeted action on
various organs and diseases. The disease, desired effect, and product availability
determine the choice of route of administration. Different routes of drug delivery are
illustrated in Fig. 1 [1].
Since the delivery of drugs is mainly dependent on their physicochemical properties, these properties severely affect the bioavailability of drugs. After taking a drug,
it exerts an influence on the various physiological systems within the body, which
is predominantly due to the active components and compounds present in the drug
being actively engaged and interacting with the body’s internal system. As therapeutic
approaches have expanded ranging from small molecules to macromolecules, novel
drug delivery systems have followed to tackle emerging challenges. The utilization
of conventional drug delivery methods has been extensive; however, certain challenges persist, including low bioavailability, difficulty in maintaining plasma drug
concentrations, and difficulty in achieving sustained release (Fig. 2)[1]. Recently,
continuous progress in various disciplines has contributed to the development of
advanced drug delivery systems. Due to their physical, chemical, and morphological
differences, different characteristics in each drug delivery system determine the drug
release rate and mechanism [2]. The recent advancements in DDS offer significant
Fig. 1 Various routes of drug administration. Reproduced with permission from MDPI [1]