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Is it ethical to experiment on animals? Many animal rights activists say no—and
are quite vocal in their opposition (Langley, 1989). To understand how psychologists
respond to these charges, it helps to know what both sides stand for. Everyone,
including those in the research community, consider themselves to be advocates for
animal welfare and support the establishment of shelters for lost pets, inoculation
programs, the prevention of cruelty to animals, and the protection of endangered
species (Johnson, 1990). Indeed, researchers argue that although food deprivation,
mild shock, drugs, and surgery are sometimes performed, allegations of mistreatment
are exaggerated. Caroline Coile and Neil Miller (1984) analyzed 608 animal-based
research articles published in the preceding five years and found that the charges
were not supported in a single instance.
Psychologists and medical researchers defend their practices by pointing to the
many ways in which their work has helped to improve the quality of human life and
arguing that it would be immoral not to use animals for our most serious problems
(Miller, 1985). Animal studies were instrumental in the development of a rabies
vaccine, in organ transplants, and in understanding diseases such as cancer and
diabetes. Animal studies have contributed to the treatment of anxiety, depression,
and other mental disorders, and they have shed light on what is currently known
about neuromuscular disorders, Alzheimer’s disease, alcoholism, aggression, ulcers,
and obesity. Indeed, recent animal research has played a pivotal role in helping us to
understand Alzheimer’s (a disorder associated with a loss of ability to retrieve
memories), with researchers now collaborating to test a possible vaccine for the
disease (Cummings et al., 2021; Fessel, 2021).
PSYCHOLOGY TODAY
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Identify the major organizations and emerging branches in psychology, and
explain the need to study a diverse group of people.
List the major organizations in psychology.
Identify the emerging branches of psychology.
Explain why researchers study diversity.
Grounded in the older disciplines of philosophy, biology, and medicine, and firmly
rooted in the conviction that mind and behavior can be studied only by using scientific
methods, psychology has made enormous progress as a field of study. From the first
subject to be tested in Wundt’s original Leipzig laboratory, to the first patient to lie on
Freud’s couch, to the first psychologist hired to work in an applied setting, to the
barrage of new discoveries concerning the links among mind, body, and health,
psychology has come a long, long way.
Although psychologists study basic processes, psychology is also a responsive
science, leading researchers to touch on some of the most important and socially
sensitive topics of our generation. The similarities and differences between men and
women; racial and ethnic diversity; sexuality; gender identity; abortion; adoption;
terrorism; standardized testing; obesity and dieting; and the effects of Ritalin for
attentional disorders, Prozac for mood disorders, and other drugs are among the
topics now being addressed. If you’re interested in the possibility of a future career in
psychology, refer to the list of major subfields (what psychologists do) and
employment settings (where they do it) presented in Figure 1.11 (American
Psychological Association, 2017b).
Psychology has been growing for decades now, and we continue to find that
growth emerge. At the college level, the popularity of the field is extraordinary.
According to the U.S. Department of Education, psychology is the second largest
college major, behind only business. There are more women in the field than ever
before, more minorities, more articles being published, and more topics being
studied. The American Psychological Association (APA) now has as members more
than 117,000 researchers, educators, clinicians, consultants, and student members—
and contains 54 divisions, each dedicated to a particular area of specialization.
Across the northern border, the Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) was
founded in 1939. In addition, a group of scientifically oriented psychologists recently
established an organization dedicated solely to basic and applied research (the APA
and the CPA also address the concerns of practicing clinical and counseling
psychologists). This organization, founded in 1988, is called the Association for
Psychological Science, or APS. It has more than 33,000 members. You can check for
news updates on the latest advances in psychology at the APA, CPA, and APS
websites.
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Description
Figure 1.11 Psychology as a Profession
Emerging Branches of Psychology
Psychology is dynamic. It is a field that can adapt to changing environments and
needs. This has never been truer than it is today. At the heart of this dynamic field is
the ability for psychology to play increased roles in fields where the largest growth is
being observed. This is likely one reason for the popularity of psychology in college: It
is a growing, adaptive, “in demand” field (Clay, 2017). In terms of demand,
psychology is projected to realize the greatest growth in three areas (Novotney,
2018). Let’s briefly look at each area.
One growth area in psychology is geropsychology, a field dedicated to
understanding and helping people with the mental and physical changes of aging.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2017), the number of Americans 65 years and
older is expected to double by 2060, and the number of Americans 85 and older may
reach more than 19 million (approximately the population of New York state). This
growth in older populations has led to substantial growth in majors, studies, trainings,
certifications, and jobs aimed at caring for these populations. Many of the Americans
in this population will be your own parents, grandparents, and if you are older than 25
today, then by 2060 this will include you too! In this way, psychology is taking the lead
in meeting the increased demands of caring for older populations, particularly for
those who are underserved.
geropsychology. A subfield of developmental psychology dedicated to
understanding and helping people with the mental and physical changes of aging.
A second growth area is provided by a large and growing body of research in
behavioral neuroscience, the study of the links between the brain and behavior.
Triggered by recent breakthroughs in biomedical technology, which enable
researchers to observe the living brain in action, this area is generating a great deal
of excitement. Two related areas are also making important contributions. One is
clinical neuroscience, which focuses on how abnormalities in the brain and nervous
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system can alter perceptions, thoughts, language, memory, emotions, and
motivations and can trigger the onset of various psychological disorders (Simonds et
al., 2018; Yudofsky & Hales, 2002). The other related area is cognitive neuroscience,
in which researchers record physical activity in different parts of the brain as a subject
reads, speaks, looks at pictures, listens to music, or solves math problems. In this
way, researchers are able to pinpoint regions and activities in the brain that
correspond to different operations of the mind (Breedlove & Watson, 2017).
behavioral neuroscience. A subfield of psychology that studies the links among
the brain, nervous system, and behavior.
A third growth area for psychology is industrial/organizational (I/O)—an applied
field introduced earlier in this chapter that addresses issues related to individuals and
groups in the workplace, and issues related to the regional, national, and global
impacts of businesses and industries. Globalization in business has led to an
increased diversity of thought and demographics, and psychology is at the forefront
of not only studying but also addressing head-on the challenges associated with
these changes. Psychology plays a critical role in developing best practices and
policies for optimizing employee motivation, management, organizational
effectiveness, marketing, human resources, and even the well-being of employees.
Across all of these challenges, understanding cultural influences is an important part
of the growth process, not only in business but also across disciplines in psychology.
industrial/organizational (I/O). An applied field of psychology that addresses
issues related to individuals and groups in workplace settings.
LEARNING CHECK
Playing the Fields
Match each question in the left column with the area of psychological study under
which it falls.
(Answers: 1. c; 2. b; 3. d; 4. a.)
Sociocultural Perspectives
In an increasingly diverse world, sociocultural perspectives are increasing
important. Now that we are well into the 21st century, communication satellites, cell
phones, social media, and the Internet bring together people from vastly different
cultures—and raise questions about the ways that we are all similar and different. Are
there, psychologists ask, “universals” in human nature, ways in which everyone is
fundamentally the same? In what ways are people from different parts of the world
distinct from one another because of the regions and cultures in which they live?
Over the years, psychologists have tried to identify established patterns of
behavior that are universally applicable to all members of the human species. People
in general, we have been told, see better in daylight than in darkness, prefer reward
to punishment, remember landmark events better than trivial ones, undergo an
identity crisis in adolescence, strive to boost self-esteem, lash out at others when
frustrated, and suffer depression after the loss of a loved one. Are these universal
tendencies? Until recently, psychologists had studied only a small segment of the
human population. All that has changed. Today, more and more psychologists do
cross-cultural research, by which they compare people from different regions of the
world who have lived very different lives (Shiraev & Levy, 2016). Cross-cultural
similarities and differences are discussed throughout the book. Table 1.5 provides a
preview of the kinds of questions that psychologists ask and the chapters in which
these questions are addressed.
cross-cultural research. A body of studies designed to compare and contrast
people of different cultures.
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This market in Mumbai is bustling with activity. In what ways are the people
depicted in this scene similar to you and everyone else on the planet? In what ways
are they different? Sociocultural perspectives focus on how people are influenced by
culture, language, the region they live in, and other aspects of their surrounding
environment.
iStock.com/HemantMandot
Table 1.5
In addition to comparing people from different parts of the world, psychologists
also conduct multicultural research, the study of racial and ethnic groups within
cultures. As in most countries, the populations of North America are heterogeneous
and diverse—and are becoming more so with time. This diversity is an important fact
of social life in all open societies, and it raises profound questions for psychologists in
all areas of the discipline. How do immigrants torn between two cultures form a new
identity, and what special problems do they face? Why are racism and other forms of
prejudice so pervasive, and what can be done about them? What experiences do
LGBTQ+ persons have with their employers, families, and communities as a result of
their sexual and gender identity? These topics are discussed throughout the book.
multicultural research. A body of studies designed to compare and contrast
racial and ethnic minority groups within cultures.
Thinking Like a Psychologist About Psychology and Its
Methods
Psychology is a broad discipline that examines the biological roots of experience,
internal cognitive and affective processes, the nature and nurture of human
development, social and cultural influences, and the diagnosis and treatment of
clinical disorders. Psychology is also a dynamic discipline. New theories are always
being proposed, and old ones supported, revised, and discarded; new research
methods are developed, and old ones are refined. On an ongoing basis, psychology
is also a responsive discipline that tackles problems posed by world events and in
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such areas as health, education, race relations, and law. Finally, despite all the
diversity and specialization, psychologists throughout the discipline value critical
thinking and a commitment to scientific research methods as a mean of gaining
knowledge about human behavior.
There are so many new developments, so many emerging areas of specialization,
so many practical applications, and so many refinements in scientific methods, that it
is impossible to cover the entire field in a single textbook. Also, because psychology
is so dynamic, its knowledge evolves somewhat over time. To the extent possible, we
have presented in this book the state of psychology today. Drawing on all of the
areas, we will close with a “capstone” chapter on some of the fascinating new
discoveries in health and well-being. As you’ll learn, the theme of this final chapter,
and of the book as a whole, is: “The mind is a powerful tool. The more we know about
how to use it, the better off we’ll be.”
SUMMARY
What Is Psychology?
Psychology can be defined as the scientific study of behavior and the mind.
Historical Roots
Psychology’s origins can be traced to ancient Greek philosophers and physicians.
During the Renaissance, Descartes developed dualism, a theory that the mind is
spiritual and the body physical. This theory implied that the mind could not be studied
scientifically. Thomas Hobbes and others disagreed, arguing that thoughts and
feelings are physical processes.
Modern experimental psychology began in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt established
his laboratory in Germany. Wundt used a method of introspection, in which trained
observers described their reactions to stimuli. In the United States, William James
wrote his classic The Principles of Psychology; and in Vienna, Sigmund Freud
developed psychoanalysis to examine the unconscious mind.
The emerging discipline faced a major controversy: Should psychologists
speculate about the invisible mind, as Freud and Wundt did, or should they confine
themselves to observable behavior? Behaviorism, as defined by John Watson, held
that psychology should concentrate on what can be seen and measured. Studying
the way organisms respond to stimuli, behaviorists such as B. F. Skinner refused to
speculate about mental processes.
Behaviorism dominated American psychology from the 1920s through the 1960s.
Then the focus shifted to cognition, the mental processes that intervene between a
stimulus and a response. The computer, which offers a model of the human mind,
helped inspire this “cognitive revolution.” So did the child development theories of
Jean Piaget and the linguistic theories of Noam Chomsky.
Expansion of Psychology’s Horizons
Since its early days, psychology has expanded considerably. It now includes
specialized areas of both basic research and applied research, it is more diversely
represented, and it relies on sophisticated research methods.
The chapters of this textbook cover several broad areas of basic research. The
biological perspective focuses on the links between the mind and body. The
cognitive perspective considers whether human beings are generally competent in
the way they learn, think, remember, and process information. The developmental
perspective addresses changes from infancy through old age and tackles the
nature-nurture debate. The social psychological perspective considers the extent
to which social situations overpower individuals. And the clinical perspective deals
with personality, disorders, treatment, and the question of whether people have the
capacity for change.
Psychology is also a responsive science that has expanded in terms of its
applications. Today, psychologists work in applied settings and use their theories and
research to better understand such areas as health and medicine, education,
business, law, sports, and current events.
A Range of Perspectives
Today there are more female, minority, and non-Western psychologists than in the
past. This increased diversity within the professional ranks has strengthened
psychology by providing new perspectives. These perspectives include those from
biological, cognitive, developmental, social psychological, sociocultural, and positive
psychological perspectives.
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Scientific Methods
Connecting all strands of psychology is an emphasis on critical thinking and
scientific methods.
The Research Process
Research is a multistep process that begins with a theory, an organized set of
principles that describes, predicts, and explains an aspect of human behavior, and
provides testable propositions known as hypotheses and operational definitions of
key variables. Investigators must then plan the study, collect data, analyze the
results, and draw a conclusion. Psychological studies vary in their settings, their ways
of measuring variables, and the types of conclusions the research is designed to
reach.
Research Settings
There are two types of research settings: laboratory research, valuable for its
control and precision; and field research, conducted in real-world environments.
Psychological Measurements
Self-reports are interviews or questionnaires in which people report on their own
thoughts, feelings, or behavior. These are easy to administer but are sometimes
misleading. The alternatives are direct behavioral observation and the archival
research that uses records of past behavior such as medical files and public
documents.
Research Designs
No matter how the information is collected, researchers use statistics to analyze
it and draw conclusions. The types of conclusions they reach depend on the research
design.
There are three types of descriptive studies designed simply to describe a person,
group, or phenomenon. Case studies collect detailed information about a particular
person. Surveys use interviews or questionnaires to draw conclusions about an
entire population. To make a survey as accurate as possible, researchers study a
random sample, so that each individual in the group has an equal chance of being
chosen. Epidemiology, the study of the distribution of illnesses in a population, is a
particularly important form of survey research. The third type of descriptive study,
naturalistic observation, involves the measurement of behavior in natural settings.
When description is not enough, researchers often employ correlational studies. A
correlation is a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors are associated.
In numerical terms, correlation coefficients range from −1 to +1 and can be shown on
a scatterplot. Researchers use correlational studies to make predictions about one
variable based on what they know about another variable. Correlation, however, does
not prove causation.
To study causal links, researchers turn to the experiment, where the investigator
manipulates an independent variable (the proposed cause) and measures a
dependent variable (the proposed effect). Then the researcher compares the
experimental group of participants to a control group that was not exposed to the
independent variable. An effective experiment requires random assignment of
participants, so that each participant has an equal chance of being in either group.
Finally, psychological research often includes reviews of the existing evidence. By
summarizing the current state of knowledge, research reviews can help resolve the
questions of replication (Would a new study produce the same results?) and
generalizability (Is the finding applicable under other sets of conditions?). Various
studies can be summarized through literature reviews and through meta-analysis, a
set of statistical procedures for combining the results of individual studies.
Ethical Considerations
Like other professions, psychology faces ethical issues—questions, for example,
about the use and treatment of research participants. For human participants,
concerns include the subject’s right to privacy, the harm or discomfort that may be
caused, and the use of deception. Research guidelines stress the need to obtain
informed consent from participants, to let them know they can withdraw at any time,
to minimize discomfort, to keep data confidential, and to debrief participants
afterward. When the experimental participants are animals, researchers must treat
them humanely and minimize their suffering.
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Psychology Today
Because of the richness of psychological research and its many applications,
there are more people in psychology today than ever before, and their work touches
on many vital public policy topics.
Emerging Branches of Psychology
Psychology is dynamic. At the heart of this dynamic field is psychology’s flexibility
and application to several areas. Thus, psychology is experiencing growth, with three
areas projected to realize the greatest growth. One such area is geropsychology, a
field dedicated to understanding and helping people with the mental and physical
changes of aging. A second growth area is behavioral neuroscience, which
examines the links between neural activity in the brain and behavior. Clinical
neuroscience focuses on how abnormalities in the brain and nervous system can
cause psychological disorders. And cognitive neuroscience examines the links
between the brain and normal mental activities. A third growth area,
industrial/organizational (I/O), is an applied field that addresses issues related to
the regional, national, and global impacts of business on individuals and groups in the
workplace.
Sociocultural Perspectives
Increasingly, psychologists are testing the universality of their principles in crosscultural research all over the world. With increasing diversity in the populations in
many countries, there is also an increase in multicultural research, studies of racial
and ethnic groups within cultures.
Critical Thinking
Thinking Critically About Psychology and Its Methods
1. Historically, psychologists have been white males of North American or
European descent. How might this fact have influenced the questions
psychologists asked and/or the theories they developed?
2. Most psychologists, at one time or another, have had to defend the notion
that psychology is a science. Why do you think it is important for psychologists to
view psychology as a scientific enterprise? Do you agree that psychology is the
scientific study of behavior and the mind? Why or why not?
3. In the past several years, we have seen a dramatic increase in violence in
schools, including adolescents shooting teachers and classmates. How might the
different theoretical perspectives discussed in this chapter (e.g., behaviorist,
cognitive, biological) attempt to explain such behavior?
4. Suppose you wanted to study school violence. Design three separate studies
—one descriptive, one correlational, and one experimental—that would allow you
to examine this issue. Would you use a case study, survey, or naturalistic
observation for your descriptive study? What variables would you measure in
your correlational study? What would be the independent and dependent
variables in your experiment? What type of measurements would you collect in
your studies? What sorts of conclusions about school violence would each study
allow you to make?
5. Do you personally believe that research should use animal participants?
What are the arguments for and against using animals as research participants?
Career Connection: Preparing for a Career
College is a place for more than just learning in the classroom; it is preparing for
life beyond the classroom. Throughout college you’ll do more than just study. You
may seek internships, engage in scholarship, volunteer in the community, join clubs
or play sports, provide tutoring to your fellow students, get a job, make friends, and
even enjoy a little fun along the way. Collectively, these experiences will allow you to
grow personally and professionally. The goal of starting college, of course, is to
graduate and, beyond that, to prepare for a career. While the career you choose is
your own personal journey, in this section we’ll explore how psychology can help
prepare you for a variety of careers and skills.
More than ever, employers are looking for intangible qualities in their employees.
In other words, they are looking for applicants who have honed their 21st century
skills. These skills include critical thinking, creativity, leadership, initiative, productivity,
social skills, communication, and information/technology/media literacy. The
American Psychological Association’s Learning Outcomes map onto several of these
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skills. Therefore, graduates with psychology degrees can apply to jobs in almost
every industry and in roles that involve understanding or guiding human behavior,
such as in business, counseling, marketing, teaching, and social services. The skills
graduates walk away with can be applicable in a number of different industries such
as business, government, education, and health care. They also set the stage for
students hoping to pursue graduate education and work as a psychologist.
Key skills for these roles that psychology students learn to develop:
Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
Apply psychological content and skills to career goals
Develop meaningful professional direction for life after graduation
Key Terms
applied research (p. 9)
archival research (p. 22)
basic research (p. 9)
behavioral neuroscience (p. 37)
behavioral observation (p. 22)
behaviorism (p. 7)
beneficence (p. 33)
biological perspective (p. 10)
case studies (p. 23)
clinical perspective (p. 12)
cognition (p. 8)
cognitive perspective (p. 10)
construct (p. 21)
control group (p. 29)
correlation (p. 27)
critical thinking (p. 18)
cross-cultural research (p. 38)
deception (p. 33)
dependent variable (p. 29)
developmental perspective (p. 10)
dualism (p. 4)
epidemiology (p. 24)
ethogram (p. 26)
experiment (p. 28)
experimental group (p. 29)
field research (p. 20)
generalizability (p. 30)
geropsychology (p. 37)
hypothesis (p. 14)
hypotheses (p. 18)
independent variable (p. 28)
industrial/organizational (I/O) (p. 37)
informed consent (p. 33)
introspection (p. 4)
justice (p. 33)
laboratory research (p. 19)
meta-analysis (p. 31)
monism (p. 4)
multicultural research (p. 38)
naturalistic observations (p. 26)
operational definitions (p. 18)
physiological measure (p. 21)
positive psychological perspective (p. 12)
psychoanalysis (p. 6)
psychology (p. 3)
random assignment (p. 30)
random sample (p. 25)
replication (p. 30)
research ethics (p. 32)
respect for persons (p. 32)
scatterplot (p. 27)
self-report (p. 21)
social psychological perspective (p. 11)
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sociocultural perspective (p. 11)
statistics (p. 23)
structuralism (p. 4)
surveys (p. 24)
Descriptions of Images and Figures
Back to Figure
An author note reads as follows. As measured by the number of searchable
articles in PsycINFO, psychology has flourished over the years and is still in the midst
of an enormous growth spurt.
The decades are plotted on the X-axis, with a range from 1879 to today. The
number of searchable articles in PsycInfo are plotted against the Y-axis, with a range
from zero to 1,600,000, at intervals of 200,000.
The estimated datapoints are presented in the following table.
Back to Figure
The dates are plotted on the X-axis, with a range from April 13 to May 8. The daily
moral tweet count is plotted against the Y-axis, with a range from zero to 25000, at
intervals of 5000. The number of tweets per day are plotted and each marker
represents the type of protest that occurred on thar day. A square marker represents
no protest, a circle market represents a peaceful protest, and a triangle marker
represents a violent protest.
The estimated data points for each day, including tweet count and protest type,
are presented in the following table.
Back to Figure
The flowchart contains 4 main tiers and develops from north to south. Each tier is
represented by a labeled box. The tiers and their influences are as follows.
Tier 1, Theory. The theory stage is influenced by 4 elements. These are
represented by 4 labeled boxes which are linked to the Theory box by downward
arrows. The influences are as follows.
1. World Events.
2. Personal Experiences.
3. Part Research Findings.
4. Logic and Common Sense.
Tier 2, Hypothesis.
Tier 3, Empirical Research. Empirical research includes the following 4 elements,
presented within the box as a bulleted list.
1. Design a study.
2. Collect the data.
3. Analyze the results.
4. Draw conclusions.
Tier 4. The final stage of the flowchart involves a decision as to whether the theory
should be supported, discarded, or revised and retested. An arrow leads back from
Tier 4 to Tier 1, Theory.
Back to Figure
The photographs are as follows.
1. The upper left image shows Obama and the First Lady, Michelle Obama,
arriving at the 2009 inaugural ball. They are both smiling and holding hands as
they descend a flight of steps.
2. The upper right image shows Obama in profile, his face masked by shadows,
his head turned down in thought.
3. The lower left image shows Bush wearing a suit and sitting at a desk reading
briefing papers.
4. The lower right image shows Bush standing and scratching his head in
confusion. He is holding a microphone during a townhall event, the audience
visible behind him.
Back to Figure
The 7 paranormal beliefs are plotted on the X-axis. The percentage of people who
believe in the paranormal type are plotted on the Y-axis. The data points are
presented in the following table.
Back to Figure
An author note reads as follows. In this example, a sample of n equals 19 was
selected from a population of N equals 90.
The diagram features a cloud-shaped population group. The group is labeled as
follows. The group of all members in a group of interest to researchers. The cloud
contains dozens of stick figures.
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The smaller cloud shape is visible inside the large population cloud. This smaller
cloud is surrounding a small group of the population. This is the sample. To make the
diagram clearer the small group has been extracted from the large cloud. A copy of
the small cloud sits outside the larger cloud, an arrow indicating that is has come
from the large cloud. The small sample cloud is labeled as follows. An accessible
portion of the population that can be directly observed.
Back to Figure
An author’s introduction reads as follows.
Scatterplots provide a graphic representation of the observed relationship
between two variables. The graphs illustrate a positive correlation, a negative
correlation, and a zero correlation. Each point locates the position of a single subject
on the two variables. The solid straight lines show what the correlations would look
like if they were perfect.
The 3 scatterplots are as follows.
1. Scatterplot 1 visualizes a positive correlation. The X-axis records exposure to
violent television. The Y-axis records the number of acts of aggression. The
datapoints indicate that increased exposure to violent television leads to
increased acts of aggression. A trend line represents the upward slant of the
data from left to right. This indicates that a positive correlation is taking place.
2. Scatterplot 2 visualizes a negative correlation. The X-axis records optimism
scores. The Y-axis records the number of illnesses. The datapoints indicate that
less optimism leads to increased numbers of illnesses. A trend line represents
the downward slant of the data from left to right. This indicates that a negative
correlation is taking place.
3. Scatterplot 3 visualizes zero correlation. The X-axis records the phases of the
moon. The Y-axis records the number of crimes. The datapoints are spread
across the graph area and indicate that the phases of the moon do not impact
crime rates. A trend line is horizontal. This indicates that there is zero correlation
taking place.
Back to Figure
An author introduction reads as follows. There are three possible ways to explain
the association between two variables, X and Y. Look at the examples in the figure
and consider possible alternatives, Z refers to extraneous variables. As another
example, in 2016, Lin and colleagues showed that increased use of social media was
correlated with or associated with higher rates of depression. Does social media use
really cause depression? There is no way to tell that from a correlation. Can you
come up with other possible interpretations of this correlation?
The diagram contains 3 sets of variables positioned in 3 columns. The columns
are labeled, X, Y, and Z. There are 3 sets of correlation examples and these are
represented by labeled boxes in each column. The examples are as follows.
Correlation set 1.
Variable X, Exposure to television violence.
Variable Y, Aggression.
Variable Z, Income, parents, education.
Correlation set 2.
Variable X, Exercise.
Variable Y, Longevity.
Variable Z, Smoking, Drinking, Diet.
Correlation set 3.
Variable X, College Education.
Variable Y, Income.
Variable Z, Ability, Motivation, Family.
Back to Figure
The flowchart has 4 main tiers and develops from north to south. An author
introduction reads as follows.
The structure of an experiment that meets the basic requirements for
demonstrating cause and effect. In this study, a sample of students at a similar
reading level was selected at random from a population of college undergraduates to
test if bolding key terms in a short passage improves recall.
To qualify as an experiment required the following 3 elements.
1. The researcher created each level of the bolding or not bolding independent
variable, such as manipulation.
2. Students were randomly assigned to read a passage with or without bolded
key terms, such as randomization.
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