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430 A. J. Aguilar-Herrera et al.
Fig. 30.2 Mobile Brain/Body Imaging (MoBI) system architecture. A typical setup integrating
EEG (BrainAmp DC, Brain Products GmbH, Gilching, Germany), IMUs (APDM Opal), audiovisual recording, and a synchronization layer (SyncBox) to enable multimodal, time-aligned data
collection in naturalistic environments. The system is adapted per study to align with task demands,
movement constraints, and aesthetic requirements
interference. These examples highlight how the general MoBI framework adapts to
different environments, whether theatrical, natural, or ritual, through contextsensitive, collaborative design.
Figure 30.1e illustrates the general timeline used in our MoBI studies. Each
session begins with an impedance check to verify signal quality; in certain cases
where costumes might interfere with electrode contact, an additional pre-costume
impedance check is performed to establish a baseline before attire is added. Following this, the record ing starts with a standardized resting baseline consisting of one
minute of eyes-open and one minute of eyes-closed conditions. Participants then
proceed to the experimental task, which may involve rehearsal, live performance, or
another naturalistic activity. Finally, a post-performance impedance check is
conducted to ensure that signal integrity was maintained throughout the session.
These examples highlight that MoBI research in naturalistic settings is not plug-
ay. It demands flexibility—technically, logistically, and culturally. Each
and-pl
deployment is a negotiation between form and function, between empirical rigor
and embodied expression. It is a methodological choreography where tools, traditions, and technologies must move in sync. The result is a system not only capable of
studying the brain in motion but also of engaging with the world in which that brain
is embedded.
Challenges Along the Way
MoBI research into real-world contexts is not simply a matter of relocating labora-
tools—it is a process of reimagining how science is conceived, practiced, and
tory
shared. Unlike traditional experiments, MoBI studies are often grounded in
30 Understanding the Creative Brain in Action 431
transdisciplinary ideation, where artists, engineers, and neuroscientists must first
learn to co-inhabit each other’s conceptual and technical languages. The question
“Where do we start?” is not rhetorical; it marks the beginning of a collaborative
design process that may span weeks of co-creation, iterative rehearsals, and negotiation between aesthetic intention and scientific rigor. In this liminal phase, storyboards, improvisation, and even philosophica
l reflection can become as essential as
technical schematic s.
Logistical and financial limitations often serve as the gravitational force pulling
even the most inspired MoBI visions back to earth. Rehearsal spaces—frequently
shared or overbooked—may offer limited availability and time to troubleshoot,
while participating artists juggle touring, teaching, or other creative commitments.
Coordinating across these moving parts demands foresight and flexibility. Legal and
ethical considerations add further complexity: informed consent must cover not only
neural recordings but also high-resolution video, sound, and imagery that may
feature performers or public figures. This requires carefully balancing visibility
with privacy—ensuring that participants can proudly share their work while
maintaining agency over how their likeness and identity are used in research
dissemination.
Funding, likewise, must stretch far beyond equipment costs. Travel, housing,
rental, and liability insurance can accumulate quickly. MoBI projects often
venue
span institutions and time zones, requiring stipends not only for scientists and
engineers but also for dancers, musicians, designers, and technical staff. When the
event is public-facing (as many MoBI studies aim to be), additional resources are
needed for media outreach, community engagement, and audience facilitation. Each
component carries its own timeline, budget, and risk profile.
On the technical front, limitations arise not from a lack of creativity, but from the
boundaries of current tools and infrastructure. Hyperscanning studies, for instance,
depend on having access to several compatible EEG systems. These systems are
often in limited supply, and some may no longer be in production, making repair and
replacement difficult. Wireless signals can interfere with stage electronics; ambient
noise from lighting rigs or mobile devices can degrade signal quality. In these
contexts, real-world setups are inherently unstable. A scalable MoBI methodology
must be built not for perfection, but for resilience, through redundancy, modular
design, repairable systems, and field-tested workflows.
And then, environments change. What functions in a controlled theater may break
down
in the unpredictability of an open-air festival. Lighting conditions may shift
unexpectedly, a security guard might block a camera mid-performance, or a photographer may enter the frame during a crucial moment. Rather than resisting such
variability, successful MoBI research embraces environmental fluidity. Modular
rigs, portable backups, and adaptable data structures become essent ial. A pre-visit
or dry run can reduce uncertainty, but improvisation remains a vital tool in the field.
In this context, reproducibility takes on a different shape. It is less about rigid
control and more about establishing clear baselines—standardized conditions such
as eyes-open/eyes-closed segments, impedance meas urements, and
432 A. J. Aguilar-Herrera et al.
time-synchronized multimodal data streams—and maintaining consistent file structures and metadata schemas to support traceability. The goal is not to replicate by
reduction, but to identify meaningful patterns that emerge across the complex
textures of real-world behavior.
Finally, there is the matter of the audience. MoBI research often unfolds in public,
on stages, in galleries, or among museum visi tors. In such contexts, the audience
becomes part of the system: not only watching, but engaging, questioning, and
interpreting. A thoughtful setup anticipates this role, incorporating signage, opportunities for dialogue, and channels for public feedback. Providing accessible explanations of the system—along with real-time visualizations of the data streams or
brain activity—further enhances audience engagement, transforming the technical
apparatus into a tool for storytelling and connection. The EEG cap thus becomes
more than a measurement device; it becomes a symbolic interface, a point of
curiosity, conversation, and shared discovery.
MoBI research demands flexibility, patience, and a willingness to collaborate
across
domains and vocabularies. Yet when executed well, it offers something rare: a
neuroscience that moves with the world, listens to its rhythms, and speaks in more
than one language. The question, then, is how this vision translates into practice.
30.3 Spectrum of Studies
MoBI + Arts research began in laboratory and university settings, where early studies
focused on testing signal quality during natural movement and collaborative artistic
exploration. As the methods and wearable designs improved, these experiments
expanded into rehearsal studios, galleries, and small public demonstrations. Over
time, as we became increasingly able to visualize brain activity in real time,
audiences began to respond not only to the artistic performance but also to the live
unfolding of cognitive and emotional dynamics. This sparked conversation, curiosity, and a sense of shared discovery—people began asking questions, reflecting on
their own experiences, and requesting more opportunities to see and participate in
these works.
These exchanges encouraged new collaborations with professional artists, cul-
tural
institutions, and eventually international performance companies. Each project
taught us how to adapt MoBI to different environments—lighting, acoustics, costumes, movement styles, and even outdoor conditions—allowing the work to expand
across theaters, museums, hospitals, nature trails, and community spaces. What
began as feasibility testing gradually evolved into a reciprocal ecosystem in which
MoBI both supports existing artistic practices and inspires entirely new creative
forms.
Figure 30.3 summarizes
indicate when each project occurred, while the color coding identifies the artistic
domain (e.g., dance, music, visual art, museum engagement, or nature-based experiences). The figure is not meant to categorize or rank the projects, but to illustrate
this development over time. The letter markers (A–T)
30 Understanding the Creative Brain in Action 433
Fig. 30.3 A visual timeline illustrating the Brain + Arts collaborative projects from 2014 to 2025
how MoBI moved from academic spaces into full-scale productions and public
settings, eventually reaching international venues and outdoor environments. The
timeline highlights the growing role of public participation, dialogue, and
co-creation between science and the arts.
The overview that follows provides additional detail about these projects. For
clarity and ease of reference, the list is organized alphabetically, rather than by
timeline position or color grouping. This allows the reader to explore the range of
MoBI applications across contexts, audiences, and artistic modes, independent of
when each project took place.
(a) Acting: In a study of “neuro-acting,” we examined interpersonal brain synchro-
nization
among student actors of varying levels of theatrical experience across
three staged performances. Drawing upon scenes selected by theater professionals for their emotional and narrative depth, the study employed
hyperscanning (simultaneous EEG recordings from multiple participants) to
measure neural coherence during live dramatic interaction. Shared gazes—
moments of direct eye contact between performers—were associated with
increased inter-brain connectivity, suggesting a neural signature for
co-regulated attention and affective resonance. These findings not only offer a
window into actor-actor dynamics but also suggest pathways for exploring actoraudience coupling and the cognitive infrastructure of performance itself. This
434 A. J. Aguilar-Herrera et al.
work underscores the value of MoBI in extending performance studies into the
neural domain, where embodiment and empathy unfold in real time (Hendry
et al.,
2025).
(b) Art Appreciation: This study explored how indi
viduals cognitively engage with
artworks in the natural setting of real-world museums. Conducted across exhibitions in the United States and Mexico, participants wore mobile EEG systems—both dry and gel-based—while freely viewing curated pieces. The aim
was twofold: to capture spontaneous neural responses to visual art and to assess
the feasibility of various EEG technologies in acoustically complex, high-traffic
public environments. Findings confirmed that mobile EEG can reliably track
patterns of attention and engagement during unstructured aesthetic experience.
Importantly, the study highlighted critical trade-offs in equipment design: gel
caps yielded higher data quality but required longer setup, while dry systems
enhanced participant comfort and public adaptability. These design tensions are
particularly salient for neuroaesthetic research seeking both ecological validity
and technical rigor (Kontson et al.,
(c) Creative Writing: In educational and outdoo
2015; Herrera-Arcos et al., 2017).
r environments, we investigated the
neural correlates of the creative writing process—particularly how sensory input
and autobiographical memory are translated into narrative expression. Participants engaged in structured writing tasks while equipped with mobile EEG
systems, allowing researchers to track shifts in cognitive state during key stages
such as ideation, revision, and free composition. Preliminary analyses indicate
that different writing stages elicit distinct neural signatures, with increased
frontal theta during generative flow and parietal desynch ronization during sensory recall and emotional introspection. By studying writing as a lived, embodied practice rather than a laboratory abstraction, this work helps bridge the gap
between neuroscience and literary creativity, and lays the groundwork for new
pedagogical applications in cognitive educat ion and expressive therapies (Cruz
Garza et al.,
2020).
(d) Dance: Here, we deployed our MoBI approach to investigate the neural basis of
sive, spontaneous, and choreographed movements. Early explorations in
expres
controlled settings demonstrated that expressive movement qualities could be
decoded from brain activity, laying the foundation for larger-scale artistic
collaborations (Cruz-Garza et al.,
gth choreography, where hyperscanning revealed intra- and inter-brain
full-len
2014). LiveWire expanded this work into a
dynamics as dancers performed in rehearsal and on stage (Pacheco-Ramírez
et al.,
2024). In Meeting of Minds, we examined how brain-to-brain coupling
evolve
d as dancers transitioned from states of discord to collaboration, highlighting the neural basis of social interaction through movement. The Slowest Wave
further explor ed dance as a medium for probing states of prolonged attention and
altered consciousness, blending choreography with neurotechnology in an
experimental performance context (Theofanopoulou et al.,
Bali project integrated Gamelan dance and music traditions, offering a
our
2024). Most recently,
non-Western lens on collective creativity and neural synchrony. Across these
studies, real-time brain visualizations during performances unveiled enhanced
30 Understanding the Creative Brain in Action 435
neural connections as dancers engaged in interactive movements. Together,
these findings inspire ongoing artistic collaborations, expanding the horizons
of creativity while pushing the boundaries of social neuroscience and brain–
computer inte rfaces.
(e) Drawing: Here, we used MoBI to capture brain activity as participants engaged
in
drawing tasks in naturalistic conditions. In Exquisite Corpse, artists collaborated on an improvisational drawing game, enabling us to study the neural
dynamics of co-creation as their sketches unfolded collectively (Cruz-Garza
et al.,
2017). Across these studies, we observed how creative visual expression
recruits
brain networks for attention, hand–eye coordination, and imagination,
offering new perspectives on the embodied nature of artistic thought.
(f) Gustatory Experiences: In this study, we extended MoBI methodologies to the
domain
of taste, investigating the neural processes underlying gustatory percep-
tion and multisensory integration during wine tasting (González-España et al.,
2023). In structured tasting sessions, participants were equipped with mobile
systems while flavor, aroma, and contextual variables were systematically
EEG
varied. These experiments revealed how sensory and contextual cues shape brain
activity in real time, highlighting the complex interplay between perception,
expectation, and experience. By bringing neurotechnology into the traditionally
aesthetic practice of wine tasting, this work demonstrates the potential of MoBI
to capture the richness of multisensory creativity in ecological settings,
expanding the scope of artistic neuroscience beyond visual and performing arts.
(g) Interactive Art: This project highlights mobile EEG as a powerful creative
medium, where real-time brain signals are transformed into dynamic forms
that animate architecture and reshape perception (Todd et al., 2019). Brain
activity
is directly linked to the shifting movement and color of ceiling panels,
allowing thought and sensation to alter the very structure of the space. In doing
so, the work externalizes inner cognitive and motor states, turning them into
visible and tangible transformations. The result is an immersive spatial experience where architecture becomes a living reflection of the mind, blurring the line
between neural activity and artistic expression.
(h) Music: In the study of music, mobile EEG was implemented among jazz
musicians, revealing synchronized neural activity during improvisation
(Ramírez-Moreno et al., 2023). These findings served as the foundation for
uent projects including “Diabelli 200”, which integrated real-time visu-
subseq
alizations of performers’ brain activity to enrich our comprehension of the
intersection of music and neuroscience. More recent projects include “A Window into the Creative Mind”, which provides unique insights into the neural
signatures of artistic creativity during the improvisation of variations on musical
pieces, and “Music in Medicine” (Contreras-Vidal,
power of music can be harnessed to heal by influencing brain dynamics in
the
2025), which explores how
therapeutic contexts.
(i) Nature Appreciation: MoBI technologies were implemented to understand the
neural,
physiological, and psychological mechanism s underlying human appre-
ciation of natural environments. Participants are fitted with a lightweight mobile
436 A. J. Aguilar-Herrera et al.
EEG system with an integrated accelerometer, synchronized with a GPS sensor
while walking through a natural park. Additionally, self-report assessments are
implemented to track psychological factors such as mood, anxiety, and attentional states. This multimodal framework allows the understanding of how
moment-to-moment environmental exposures shape cognitive-emotional states
and support well-being, while demonstrating the potential of MoBI to study
complex human experiences in natural environments.
(j) Painting: Using MoBI technology, the first painting study takes inspiration from
the surrealist game Exquisite Corpse, providing new insights into the cognitive–
motor processes underlying collaborative art improvisation (Nijho lt, 2019). The
second
study, the Nahual Project, examines AI’s role in creativity and well-being
by capturing EEG data as an artist creates a work of art in real time. Together,
these projects highlight the intersection of neuroscience, technology, and artistic
expression.
(k) Videogames: In the following study, MoBI technology
is used to capture
simultaneous EEG and head-movement data from children engaging in a
Minecraft video-game task at the Children’s Museum of Houston. The experiment offers rich insight into how age, gender, and gaming skill level influence
temporal and spectral neural responses in naturalistic, free-behavior contexts
(Sujatha Ravindran et al., 2019).
(l) Into the Artist’s Mind (An 18-Month Longitudinal Study): Using context-aware
technology, we conducted an 18-month longitudinal study to investigate
MoBI
the creative brain in naturalistic settings. The research captured neural and
behavioral data across the distinct phases of ideation, planning, prototyping,
and production of an artistic installation. This approach offers a rare, continuous
perspective on the dynamic interplay between cognitive processes and artistic
creation over extended time scales (Contreras-Vidal et al.,
2019b).
In addition, we provide a continuously updated project table that offers further
detail
for each study, including artistic domain, venue and location, performance and
rehearsal history, audience engagement scale, research tasks, study aims, participant
enrollment, hyperscanning configurations, equipment used, data-sharing status,
funding sources, and media documentation. Because several projects remain ongoing or continue to tour and develop, the table is maintained as a living document and
updated as new performances and datasets become available:
Access the project table: BOA Projects Outreach—Studies Review
Together, these projects demonstrate the adaptability of MoBI across artistic
, cultural contex ts, and research environments. They reflect not only the
genres
versatility of mobile neuroimaging tools but also the range of questions that emerge
when neuroscience steps outside the lab and into public life.
As these studies accumulated, a clearer picture began to form: despite their
sity, successful MoBI projects shared key methodological patterns and design
diver
principles. These were not prescribed protocols, but adaptable practices developed
through interdisciplinary collaboration, trial and error, and reflection in the field.
30 Understanding the Creative Brain in Action 437
30.4 MoBI+ Framework
While the catalog above demonstrates the diversity of contexts in which MoBI can
be applied, it also revealed recurring challenges—and, more importantly, consistent
strategies that led to successful outcomes. Through iterative experimentation across
disciplines and venues, a flexible framework has gradually emerged to support
mobile EEG research in naturalistic, creative, and culturally embedded
environments.
This section outlines that framework. It is not a rigid protocol, but a set of
working
the complex process of designing and conducting MoBI studies outside the laboratory. These principles are grounded in lived experience, from negotiating the
technical constraints of live performance, to navigating ethical questions in
community-based settings.
Early, Interdisciplinary Collaboration
Effective MoBI studies begin with cross-disciplinary collaboration. Artists, scientists,
before research questions or protocols are finalized. Co-development often includes
brainstorming sessions, movement rehearsals, and site visits, allowing teams to
identify not only opportunities but also disciplinary constraints, production
workflows, and audience expectations. For example, designing an attentionmonitoring task for an actor cannot rely on inserting discrete trials into a script. It
requires aligning experimental design with the narrative arc and emotional rhythm of
the performance. These early interactions shape both the scientifi c approach and the
integrity of the artistic work.
principles designed to guide researchers, artists, and technologists through
engineers, and cultural practitioners must work together from the outset, ideally
Technical Adaptation and Rehearsal
In naturalistic settings, equipment must adapt to the realities of live performance.
hardware is modified to accommodate costumes, headpieces, and movement,
EEG
without compromising signal quality. We have implemented strategies such as
internal padding for stability, sensor-safe zones on the face, and full technical
rehearsals under lighting and physical conditions that mirror actual performance
environments. These rehearsals are essential. They serve as pilot tests for equipment
durability, signal integrity, and system synchronization, helping to identify and
resolve vulnerabilities prior to data collection.
Cultural Literacy and Ethical Protocols
Because many studies occur in culturally specific or public settings, cultural aware-
and ethics must be built into every stage of the research. Working with
ness
participants whose identities, traditions, or social roles carry significance requires
more than institutional approval. It requires sustained dialogue, cultural literacy, and
clear communication. In studies involving traditional performing arts, we have
encountered rituals and garments with deep symbolic meaning. Sensor placement
on the head or face, for instance, may not be appropriate without cultural consultation or adaptation. In such cases, we work close ly with advisors, community leader s,
or participants themselves to co-design respectful protocols.
438 A. J. Aguilar-Herrera et al.
We also adjust our visual outputs accordingly. Neurofeedback displays projected
during a performance should enhance, not distract from, the artist’s intent. Informed
consent must be tailored to the setting, especially when working with children,
public figures, or multilingual communities. We include language that clarifies
how EEG data, photos, or video footage may be used, and when live data will be
visualized. Participants are briefed on whether audiences can see individual signals
or only group-level trends. These decisions directly impact participant comfort and
public trust and help foster long-term collaborations rooted in transparency and
mutual respect.
Integrating Scientific Rigor with Environmental Variability
Balancing public engagement with experimental rigor requires deliberate design.
Unlike controlled laboratory settings, public performances introduce a host of
uncontrolled variables: ambient noise, shifting lighting, spontaneous performer
gestures, and dynamic audience interactions. Rather than treating these factors as
disruptions, we incorporate them into the research framework. Behavioral markers—
such as motion tracking, audio cues, or video annotation—are aligned with EEG
data, while multimodal data streams provide contextual layers that help interpret
neural signals. In this way, ecological validity is preserved without sacrificing data
quality.
Public Engagement as Scientific Practice
Audience interaction is not incidental but central to MoBI+Arts research. Perfor-
s and demonstrations often take place in settings where the audience is
mance
physically proximate and cognitively engaged. Before a performance, audiences
are introduced to the EEG system through brief explanations and accessible visualizations, tailored to the specific group, whether K–12 students, museum visitors, or
general audiences. After the performance, Q&A sessions invite dialogue across
diverse experience levels. These conversations frequently spark new perspectives,
raise unanticipated questions, and even suggest future research directions. In these
contexts, the audience becomes an active participant in the scientific process,
broadening both the scope and the societal relevance of the research.
Open Data and Reproducibility
A critical but often overlooked part of the framework is data sharing and open
pract
ices. From the start, we organize our studies for reproducibility, using formats
like BIDS (Brain Imaging Data Structure) and logging all sensor configurations,
annotations, and metadata. In addition to sharing raw EEG data, we publish detailed
guides—such as electrode placement maps tailored to specific costumes or performance types (Hendry et al.,
al., 2024)—to reduce the entry barrier for other research teams and practitioners
et
ed in replicating the work.
interest
2025; Pacheco-Ramírez et al., 2024 ; Theofanopoulou
Integrating Emerging Technologies
Finally, the framework leaves room for emerging technologies such as brain-computer
interfaces (BCIs), generative AI, and real-time feedback systems. These tools
enable new forms of interactivity and expression, allowing performers to influence
30 Understanding the Creative Brain in Action 439
sound, lighting, or visualizations with their neural signals. For instance, we have
used real-time EEG to drive generative visuals based on attention or emotional
arousal. While these integrations require significant technical coordination, they
enhance both artistic and scientific outcomes when implemented thoughtfully.
Future Directions and Framework Evolution
As the field of MoBI continues to expand, this framework must evolve to support
more complex, distributed, and scalable research environments. One key direction
involves enabling group-based and multisite studies. Many creative and communitybased activities involve collective expression—such as ensemble performance,
collaborative storytelling, or large-scale participatory installations. Scaling
hyperscanning beyond two or three participants requires synchronized timing across
mobile systems, consistent event annotation, and hardware/software reliability under
diverse conditions. Developing lightweight, replicable setups that can be deployed
across different venues and cultural contexts will be essential for broader adoption.
Another area for refinement involves multimodal data integration and
cessing. MoBI studies often involve EEG data recorded alongside motion
prepro
sensors, audio, video, and physiological measures. Each of these data streams is
subject to its own noise and variability in real-world conditions. Streamlining
preprocessing pipelines to manage movement artifacts, synchronize streams, and
support contextual labeling remains an ongoing challenge. Advances in semiautomated artifact detection, machine learning-assisted annotation, and modular
toolkits will help interdisciplinary teams process and interpret data more efficiently—even those without deep EEG expertise.
Ultimately, improving this framework is not just a technical goal—it’s about
maintai
ning an adaptable, ethical, and collaborative model for research in public life.
With each new study, we gain a deeper understanding of how culture, context, and
logistics shape the possibilities and limits of mobile neuroimaging. By continuing to
document what works, revise what doesn’t, and stay responsive to diverse partners,
we can build a more inclusive and sustainable foundation for MoBI research. The
next section outlines the ongoing challenges and limitations we have encountered in
this work—insights we hope will help future teams anticipate complexity and design
more resilient and impactful studies.
30.5 Processing Multimodal MoBI Data
Preprocessing EEG data in Mobile Brain/Body Imaging (MoBI) contexts presents a
distinct set of challenges compared to traditional, laboratory-based recordings. In
MoBI studies, participants are not stationary but instead engaged in natural behaviors within complex and often unpredictable environments. These real-world conditions introduce a wide range of physiological and mechanical artifacts, including
those from eye movements, muscle activity, posture shifts, and sensor displacement,
all of which can obscure the underlying neural signals of interest.