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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_6027_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
X
- •Preface
- •Acknowledgments
- •About This Book
- •Contents
- •List of Figures
- •List of Tables
- •Editor and Contributors
- •1.3 EEG and Other Neuroscience Methods
- •1.4 The Future of EEG
- •1.1 EEG Technology: Past to Present
- •1.2 What Do We Know About the EEG Signal?
- •1.5 Conclusions
- •References
- •2.1 Physiological Origins of the EEG
- •2.2 Signals of the EEG
- •2.3 Concluding Summary
- •References
- •3.1 Introduction
- •3.2 General Organization
- •3.3 Finding Your Way Around: Brain Atlases
- •3.3.2 Talairach Atlas and MNI Coordinates
- •3.3.4 Accessing and Using Atlases
- •3.4 Putting into All Together
- •3.5 Conclusion
- •References
- •4.1 Introduction
- •4.2 Overview of the Peripheral Nervous System
- •4.3 Basic Anatomical Unit of the PNS: Ganglia and Nerves
- •4.4 Anatomy of Somatic Nervous System
- •4.4.1 Receptors
- •4.4.1.1 Vision
- •4.4.1.2 Audition
- •4.4.1.3 Vestibular System and Balance
- •4.4.1.4 General Sensory Modalities
- •4.4.2 Somatic Sensory System
- •4.5 Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System
- •4.5.1 Sympathetic Nervous System
- •4.5.2 Parasympathetic Nervous System
- •4.6 Cranial Nerves
- •4.7 Function of the PNS and CNS as a Unit
- •4.8 Concluding Remarks
- •References
- •5.1 Introduction
- •5.2 Head Anatomy and Signal Propagation
- •5.3.1 The Eyes and Ocular Potentials
- •5.3.2 Facial Muscles and EMG
- •5.3.3 Sweat Glands and Skin Potentials
- •5.3.4 Blood Vessels and Heartbeat
- •5.4 Conclusion
- •References
- •6.1 Introduction
- •6.2.1 What Is a Brain State?
- •6.2.2 Brain States Measured with EEG
- •6.3 Examples of Brain States
- •6.3.1 Awake State Sleep State
- •6.3.2 Consciousness States: Presence Loss (Anesthesia)
- •6.4 Pathological Brain States
- •6.4.1 Traumatic Brain Injury
- •6.4.2 ADHD
- •6.5 Framework of Brain States
- •6.6 Concluding Summary
- •References
- •7.1 Introduction
- •7.3 Identifying Task Processes Within a Trial Segment
- •7.3.2 Cross-Trial Comparability and Flexible Time-Locking
- •7.4 What Does Activity Look Like on the Timeline?
- •7.5 Conclusion
- •References
- •8.1 Introduction
- •8.2 Setting a Research Question
- •8.3 Setting a Hypothesis
- •8.3.2 Testing the Hypothesis
- •8.4 Design of the Study
- •8.4.1 Contextualization of the Hypothesis
- •8.4.1.1 Experimental Paradigm
- •8.4.1.2 EEG Index
- •8.4.1.3 Group/Sample
- •8.4.2 Implementation of the Study
- •8.4.2.1 Paradigm/Task Implementation
- •8.4.2.2 Measurement Precision
- •8.4.2.3 Experimental Protocol
- •8.4.2.4 Pilot Testing
- •8.5 Concluding Summary
- •References
- •9.1 Introduction
- •9.2 Why Is Statistics Needed in EEG Research?
- •9.3 When Is Statistics Applied During EEG Data Analysis?
- •9.3.1 Raw EEG Data
- •9.3.2 Individual-Level (First-Level) Analysis
- •9.3.3 Group-Level (Second-Level) Analysis
- •9.3.3.1 Statistical Hypotheses
- •9.3.4 Application of Statistical Inference
- •9.3.5 Interpretation and Inference
- •9.4.1 Hypotheses (Upper Plane of Fig. 9.2)
- •9.4.2 Population and Sample Data (Bottom Plane of Fig. 9.2)
- •9.4.3 Sample Statistic (Middle Plane of Fig. 9.2)
- •9.5 Conclusion
- •References
- •10.1.1 Why Pilot Testing Matters
- •10.2 How to Prepare and Run the Pilot Testing
- •10.2.1.1 Signal Quality
- •10.2.1.2 Task Parameters
- •10.2.1.3 Instructions
- •10.2.1.4 Participant Experience
- •10.2.1.5 Equipment Setup
- •10.2.1.6 Procedures
- •10.2.1.7 Questionnaires
- •10.1 What Pilot Testing Is
- •10.3 Concluding Summary
- •References
- •11.1 Introduction
- •11.2 Lab Management
- •11.2.1 Admin and Organisation
- •11.2.2 Hardware and Software Maintenance
- •11.2.3 Lab Logbook
- •11.3 Keep Your Own Lab Notebook
- •11.4.1 Pre-measurement
- •11.4.2 Measurement
- •11.4.3 Post Measurement
- •11.5 Conclusion
- •References
- •12.1 Introduction
- •12.2 Components of the System
- •12.2.1 Detecting the Signal: EEG Electrode Technology
- •12.2.1.1 Passive Electrode Plus Gel
- •12.2.1.2 Active Electrodes Plus Gel
- •12.2.1.3 Passive Electrode and Saline Soaked Sponges
- •12.2.1.4 Dry Electrodes
- •12.2.1.5 Electrode Positions
- •12.2.2 Detecting the Signal: Sensors for Other Measures
- •12.2.2.1 Bipolar Peripheral Electrophysiology
- •12.2.2.2 Peripheral Physiological Sensors
- •12.2.2.3 GSR
- •12.2.2.4 Respiration
- •12.2.2.5 Photoplethysmography (PPG)
- •12.3 Conclusion
- •References
- •13.1 Purpose and Features
- •13.2 Before Starting Your Study
- •13.2.1 General Parameters
- •13.2.2 Special Applications
- •13.2.3 Real-Time Processing
- •13.3 During a Measurement Session
- •13.4 Troubleshooting
- •13.5 Conclusion
- •References
- •14.1 Introduction
- •14.2 Importance of Triggers
- •14.3 Advantages of Triggers
- •14.4 Disadvantages of Triggers
- •14.5 Alternatives to Triggers
- •14.6 Good Practice for Using Triggers
- •14.7.1 Setup
- •14.7.2 Analysis
- •14.7.3 Interpretation
- •14.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •15.1 Introduction
- •15.2 The Idea of Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
- •15.3 Sources of Artifact
- •15.4 Common Physiological Artifacts
- •15.4.1 Eye Artifacts
- •15.4.2 ECG Artifacts
- •15.4.4 Other Physiological Artifacts
- •15.5 Common Technical Artifacts
- •15.5.1 Technical Artifacts
- •15.5.2 Electrode Artifacts
- •15.5.3 Gel-Related Artifacts
- •15.5.4 Movement Artifacts
- •15.5.5 Body/Head Movements
- •15.5.6 Cable Movement Artifacts
- •15.6 Artifacts in Advanced Applications and Multi-modal Recordings
- •15.6.1 EEG and Functional MRI
- •15.6.2 EEG and Non-invasive Brain Stimulation
- •15.7 Optimizing the EEG Recording Quality
- •15.7.1 Focus on the Cap Preparation
- •15.7.2 Optimize the Recording Environment
- •15.7.3 During the Recording
- •15.7.4 Post Recordings
- •15.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •16.1 Introduction
- •16.2 Lab Infrastructure
- •16.2.1 Signal Quality
- •16.2.2 Control Over the Experimental Environment
- •16.2.4 Safety
- •16.3 Position of the Equipment and Accessories
- •16.4 Lab Procedures
- •16.5.1 Mobile Setups
- •16.5.2 Electrode Types
- •16.5.2.1 Passive Sponge-Based Electrodes
- •16.5.2.3 Dry Electrodes
- •16.5.3 Special Populations
- •16.5.3.1 Children
- •16.6 Concluding Summary
- •References
- •17.1 Introduction
- •17.2 Common Preprocessing Steps: Data Transformation
- •17.2.1 Inspecting Data
- •17.2.2 Changing the Sampling Frequency
- •17.2.3 Re-referencing
- •17.2.4 Interpolating Channels or Data Portions
- •17.2.5 Segmenting Data
- •17.3 Common Preprocessing Steps: Artifact Handling
- •17.3.1 Filtering
- •17.3.2 Attenuating Artifacts
- •17.3.2.1 Independent Component Analysis (ICA)
- •17.3.2.2 Regression Techniques
- •17.3.2.3 Template Subtraction Methods
- •17.3.3 Rejecting Artifacts
- •17.5 Tools for Processing and Analyzing EEG
- •17.6 Concluding Remarks
- •References
- •18.1 Introduction
- •18.2 Characterizing an Oscillatory Process
- •18.2.1 Fundamental Characteristics of an Oscillatory Process
- •18.2.2 From Time to Frequency and Back
- •18.3 Foundation for Spectral Analysis: The Dot Product
- •18.4 Fourier Analysis
- •18.4.1 From Vectors to Sinusoids: The Fourier Connection
- •18.4.2 The Fourier Family
- •18.4.3 Discrete Fourier Transform
- •18.4.4 Power Spectrum
- •Further Readings
- •References
- •19.1 Introduction
- •19.2 How to Get from EEG to ERPs
- •19.2.1 How to Process Your ERP Data
- •19.2.1.1 Pre-processing
- •19.2.1.2 Trial Selection
- •19.2.1.3 Baseline Correction
- •19.2.1.4 Averaging
- •19.2.2 Interpreting ERPs
- •19.2.3 Group Analysis
- •19.2.4 Single-Trial Analysis
- •19.3 Characteristics of the ERP and Its Components
- •19.4 Commonly Investigated ERP Components
- •19.4.1 Early Sensory Components
- •19.4.2 Long-Latency Sensory Components
- •19.4.3 Later Cognitive Components
- •19.4.4 ERP Components in Multimodal Recording Scenarios
- •19.5 Extraction of ERP Features
- •19.6 Conclusion
- •References
- •20.1 Introduction
- •20.2 Fundamentals of EEG Source Imaging
- •20.3 Forward Problem
- •20.4 Source Estimation
- •20.5 Statistical Inference in the Source Space
- •20.6 Source Connectivity
- •20.7 Conclusion
- •References
- •21.1 Introduction
- •21.2 Raw Data Access
- •21.2.1 How to Get Raw Data
- •21.2.2 How to Work with Raw Data Online
- •21.2.3 What Factors to Consider for Online Processing
- •21.3 Designing an Online Processing Experiment, an Example
- •21.4 Conclusion
- •References
- •22.1 Introduction
- •22.1.2 Chapter Overview
- •22.2.2 Exactly What the SME Means
- •22.2.5 Why the Scoring Method Matters
- •22.2.8 Other Potential Uses of the SME
- •22.4 Metrics of Reliability
- •22.5 Final Thoughts
- •References
- •23.1 Cognitive Neuroscience
- •23.1.1 Neuropsychology and EEG
- •23.1.2 Mental Chronometry and EEG
- •23.2 Research on the EEG Signals
- •23.3 Conclusions
- •References
- •24.1 Introduction
- •24.2.1 Clinical Research
- •24.2.2 EEG in Research for Clinical Applications
- •24.2.3 EEG as a Biomarker
- •24.3 Examples of Clinical Applications of EEG
- •24.3.1 Epilepsy
- •24.3.2 Sleep and Sleep Disorders
- •24.3.3 Anesthesia
- •24.4.2 Brain-Computer Interfaces and Movement Disorders
- •24.5 Future of EEG in Clinical Applications
- •24.6 Conclusion
- •References
- •25.1 Introduction
- •25.1.1 Why Connect Brains and Computers?
- •25.1.2 What Is a BCI?
- •25.1.3 Types of BCIs: Active, Reactive, Passive
- •25.1.4 BCIs in Neuroscience and HCI
- •25.2 Signals and Sensors
- •25.2.1 Neural Signals for BCIs
- •25.2.2 Wearable EEG and Form Factors
- •25.3 The BCI Pipeline: From Raw Signals to Decisions
- •25.3.1 Overview
- •25.3.2 Experimental Design and Labeling
- •25.3.3 Preprocessing and Artifacts
- •25.3.4 Feature Extraction
- •25.4 BCI Types Illustrated
- •25.4.1 Motor Imagery as an Active BCI Paradigm
- •25.4.2 P300 and SSVEPs as Reactive BCI Paradigms
- •25.4.3 Workload, Error, and Other Passive BCI Paradigms
- •25.5.1 Mental State Assessment as a First Stage
- •25.5.2 Open- and Closed-Loop Adaptation
- •25.6 Practical Challenges
- •25.6.1 Mobility, Artifacts, and Non-stationarity
- •25.6.2 Cross-User and Cross-Session Generalization
- •25.6.3 Evaluation in Real Settings
- •25.6.4 Ethics, Privacy, and Neurorights
- •25.7 Conclusions and Outlook
- •25.7.1 Key Takeaways
- •25.7.2 Future Trajectories
- •References
- •26.1 Focal Epilepsy
- •26.2 EEG Manifestations of Focal Epilepsy
- •26.2.1 Ictal EEG Patterns
- •26.2.2 Interictal EEG Patterns
- •26.3 Localization of Ictal and Interictal EEG Events
- •26.4 Intracranial EEG in Presurgical Planning
- •26.5 AI in EEG Interpretation
- •26.6 Conclusion
- •References
- •27.1 Introduction
- •27.2 Neonatal EEG Applications
- •27.2.2 Somatosensory States Monitoring in Neonates
- •27.3 Paediatric EEG Applications
- •27.3.1 Sleep Monitoring in Children and Adolescents
- •27.4 Future Directions and Conclusion
- •References
- •28.1 What Is Sleep?
- •28.1.1 Stages of Sleep
- •28.1.2 How Sleep Changes with Age
- •28.2 Measuring Human Sleep
- •28.2.1 The Various Forms of Sleep
- •28.2.2 Unihemispheric Sleep
- •28.3.1 NREM Sleep and Learning
- •28.3.2 REM Sleep and Learning
- •28.4.1 Active Brain Networks During Sleep
- •28.4.2 Measuring the Balance of Excitation and Inhibition in the Human Brain
- •28.4.3 The Cerebrospinal Fluid Dynamics in Human Sleep
- •28.5 Conclusions
- •References
- •29.1 What Is Mobile EEG?
- •29.2 Range of mEEG Systems
- •29.3 Technical Considerations
- •29.4 Validation
- •29.5 Application
- •29.6 Mild Cognitive Impairment
- •29.7 mEEG and Health and Exercise
- •29.8 mEEG in Sports
- •29.9 Conclusions
- •References
- •30.1 Introduction
- •30.2 General Framework and System Overview
- •30.3 Spectrum of Studies
- •30.4 MoBI+ Framework
- •30.5 Processing Multimodal MoBI Data
- •30.6 Challenges and Limitations
- •30.7 Conclusion
- •Appendix
- •List: Traveling with MoBI Equipment
- •References
- •31.1 Introduction
- •31.2 Types of Electric Brain Stimulation
- •31.3 Online Effects
- •31.3.1 Conventional Artifact Removal Strategies
- •31.3.1.1 Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS)
- •31.3.1.2 Transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS)
- •31.3.1.3 Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS)
- •31.3.3 Innovative Approaches to Minimize Artifacts
- •31.3.3.1 Non-Sinusoidal Waveforms
- •31.3.3.2 Amplitude-Modulated tACS (AM-tACS)
- •31.3.3.3 Transcranial Temporal Interference Stimulation (tTIS)
- •31.3.3.4 Summary of Advantages and Limitations
- •31.4.1 Spectral Power
- •31.4.2 Phase Locking/Phase Coherence
- •31.4.3 ERPs
- •31.4.4 Further Measures
- •31.5.1 Rationale
- •31.5.2 Procedure
- •31.6 Closed-Loop Systems
- •31.7 Technical Requirements
- •31.8 Conclusion
- •References
- •32.1 Introduction
- •32.2.1 Equipment

25 From Brain Signals to Neuroadaptive Technology: BCIs for Human-Computer... 337
significant challenges if they co-occur systematically with labels, especially in
mobile or applied settings. Techniques such as Independent Component Analysis
(ICA) (Bell & Sejnowski,
struction (ASR) (Mullen et al., 2015; Chang et al., 2019) can help to suppress
Recon
these
sources but come at the cost of not necessarily being real-time capable, or
risking removing brain activity from the data (see also Chap.
situati
ons, however, preprocessing can only do so much, and good data begins at
the source. Proper EEG setup and data quality monitoring during acquisition are vital
to ensure the highest possible data quality for any downstream analysis.
Comparing BCIs with other forms of neuroimaging, one point needs to be
emphasized: In real-time BCIs, preprocessing must operate with minimal latency.
By this nature, BCI preprocessing, too, is minimal and favors lightweight, causal
filters, and reduced-complexity artifact handling.
1995; Hyvärinen et al., 2001) or Artifact Subspace
15). As in many
25.3.4 Feature Extraction
BCI performance depends heavily on how neural activity is represented and which
mental states are to be decoded, or elicited in the paradigm. As the neural signals in
the EEG were categorized into event-related and oscillatory components, this distinction is relevant for BCI feature extraction, as well. Time-domain features, such as
ERP windowed mean amplitudes, capture transient components tied to specific
events (e.g., error responses). Frequency-domain features are used to capture oscillatory activity in frequency bands associated with continuous cognitive processes
(e.g., workload). Spatial fi ltering methods, including Common Spatial Patterns
(CSPs), enhance class separability in such frequency features by emphasizing spatial
differences in activation patterns before extracting the band powers themselves.
A more recent family of representations uses Riemannian geometry, modeling
covari
ance matrices on their natural manifold to capture stable spatial relationships
in EEG (Congedo et al., 2017; Yger et al., 2017). These approaches have shown
performance in both event-based and continuous decoding tasks, but require
strong
additional processing steps.
25.3.5 Machine Learning and Classifiers
BCIs employ a range of machine learning methods to translate features into predictions. Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) and logistic regression remain widely
used because they provide strong performance with minimal computational cost and
work wel l with limited training data (Lotte et al.,
(SVMs)
linear SVMs are more commonly used. They may exhibit slightly improved performance but require more tuning and computational overhead. Importantly, in BCI,
can handle nonlinear boundaries, but this is often not necessary in BCI, and
2018). Support Vector Machines

338 M. Klug et al.
there is often a lack of data points in relation to the number of features—or
parameters—the classifier is taking in. For example, in windowed-means
approaches, the number of features can exceed one thousand, but the number of
samples may be only one hundred per class. Hence, it is particularly important to
take care to regularize the data accordingly, independently of the machine learning
method employed.
Recently, new approaches employing convolutional neural nets, such as EEGNet
(Lawhern et al., 2018), have emerged. These approaches combine the extraction of
features and the separation of the classes in one algorithm to learn temporal or spatial
structure directly from raw or minimally processed EEG, thus leveraging the power
of both data-driven feature extraction and non-linear decoding (Schirrmeister et al.,
2017; Roy et al., 2019). While these methods are newer and initially showed
ise, deep learning approaches require more substantial computational
prom
resources, are prone to overfitting due to their size, and they do not show relevant
improvements over classic approaches (Lotte et al.,
data,
these methods might become more powerful, however.
2018). With larger quantities of
25.3.6 Classifier Validation
Validation assesses how well a trained model can decode neural states, and it must
go beyond reporting the accuracy on the training data, which is inflated because the
model has already seen those examples. Cross-validation addresses this by
partitioning data into train–test folds and estimating performance on unseen data,
ideally preserving temporal structure to avoid leakage. A completely independent
test set provides the most reliable measure of generalization, however. Importantly,
it is not enough to assume that a decoding accuracy above chance level is sufficient.
Instead, the statistical significance level of “exceeding chance level by chance”
needs to be computed for the given number of samples per class, and reported as a
baseline that the decoding must exceed (Combrisson & Jerbi,
et
al., 2008). Here, data imbalance can bias both models and accuracy estimates, and
gh some algorithms, such as LDA, tolerate imbalance reasonably well during
althou
training, it is preferable to balance conditions for validation to obtain a proper
estimate of the classifier’s performance.
Beyond numerical metrics, validation must include inspection of the neural
source
s driving classification to ensure that decoding reflects genuine brain signals
rather than artifacts (Haufe et al.,
requi
re assessing generalizability to new tasks or contexts, since calibration is often
performed in one setting but deployment may occur in others (e.g., Zhang et al.,
2018).
2014; Krol et al., 2018a). Finally, especially pBCIs
2015; Mueller-Putz

25 From Brain Signals to Neuroadaptive Technology: BCIs for Human-Computer... 339
25.4 BCI Types Illustrated
25.4.1 Motor Imagery as an Active BCI Paradigm
Motor imagery (MI) BCIs convert imagined movements into commands by
exploiting modulations of sensorimotor rhythms. When users imagine left- or
right-hand actions, mu (8–13 Hz) and beta (13–30 Hz) power over the sensorimotor
cortex shows reliable event-related desynchronization patterns, lateralized to the
imagined limb (Pfurtscheller & Lopes da Silva, 1999; Pfurtscheller et al., 2006). A
ard MI pipeline uses band-pass filtering around the mu/beta range, spatial
stand
filtering such as Common Spatial Patterns to enhance class separability (Ramoser
et al., 2000), and a linear classifier such as LDA. MI systems are a canonical example
of volitional neural control and are widely used to study intentional BCI communication, neurofeedback, and motor rehabilitation (Daly & Wolpaw, 2008; Blankertz
et
al., 2008).
25.4.2 P300 and SSVEPs as Reactive BCI Paradigms
Reactive BCIs leverage stimulus-evoked activity that is modulated by attention. In
the P300 speller, a matrix of letters is presented, where rows and columns flash at
random. Flashes of the attended letter elicit a positive ERP around 300 ms
poststimulus. By classifying which stimuli produce strong P300 responses, the
system infers the intended selection, and over time, words and sentences can be
spelled (Farwell & Donchin, 1988). Decoding typically uses ERP amplitude features
with linear classifiers. Steady-state visually evoked potential (SSVEP) BCIs instead
use different continuous flicker frequencies on visible objects, where fixations on
such objects induce frequency-tagged oscillations in the visual cortex detectable
over occipital channels (Vialatte et al.,
the
EEG can then be used to identify the dominant flicker frequency to determine the
chosen item. Both paradigms provide high reliability with little user training, making
them central for communication BCIs.
2010; Norcia et al., 2015). Spectral power in
25.4.3 Workload, Error, and Other Passive BCI Paradigms
Passive BCIs decode naturally occurring brain activity to estimate cognitive or
affective state in real time, without requiring intentional control. Typical targets
include workload, vigilance, attention, fatigue, and error perception, operationalized
through task manipulations rather than explicit commands (Zander & Kothe, 2011;
Arico
et al., 2018). Continuous states are commonly inferred from oscillatory
ers such as frontal theta or parietal alpha changes for cognitive workload,
mark

340 M. Klug et al.
whereas event-based states rely on ERPs at the level of single trials linked to
feedback, surprise, or errors. Processing pipelines mirror those of other BCIs, with
continuous states being decoded similarly to MI BCIs, and event-based transient
states being decoded similarly to P300 BCIs. These paradigms are not used for
communication or control, and do not require conscious attentional shifts or active
imagination on the user’s side. Instead, they ground neuroadapt
ive systems or
artificial intelligence applications that can adjust to users based on moment-tomoment state detection.
In the literature, workload is one of the most extensively studied targets for
passive BCIs. Here, changes in frontal theta and parietal alpha are commonly used
to track cognitive demand in working-memory paradigms (Gevins & Smith, 2003;
Gerjets
have
rema
et al., 2014; Brouwer et al., 2012). Carefully designed training paradigms
also been shown to be sensitive across tasks (Zhang et al., 2018), while
ining robust across posture and stimulation modality (flat screen/VR) and
using the same frontal theta/parietal alpha markers as previous studies (Gherman
et al.,
2025).
Beyond workload, error and surprise responses provide powerful event-based
targe
ts. Error-r elated negativities and related components can signal when the user
detects a mismatch or mistake, whether caused by themselves or by the system
(Falkenstein et al., 2000). This has been exploited in passive BCIs that detect
interacti
on errors and trigger automatic “undo” or corrective actions (Chavarriaga
et al., 2014; Lopes-Dias et al., 2019; Xavier Fidêncio et al. 2022). Prediction-error
respon
ses have also been used to detect unrealistic visuo-haptic interactions and
implausible object physics in VR, enabling systems to identify when a simulation
violates user expectations and adapt automatically to user preference (Gehrke et al.
2019, 2022, 2025).
Beyond workload and error, passive BCIs have been used to track a range of other
mental states. Attention and task engagement are often monitored using spectral
indices similar to workload, for example, frontal theta and parietal alpha ratios, or
composite “engagement indices” (Pope et al.,
meas
ures have been applied to vigilance and drowsiness monitoring and safety-
1995; Berka et al., 2007). These
critical supervision, sometimes complemented by event-related components such as
the P300, which is modulated by stimulus relevance, motivation, and attentional
resources (Begleiter et al.,
1983; Polich, 2007; Acı et al., 2019; Vortmann et al.,
2022; Pawlitzki et al., 2021). A closely related line of work targets relaxation, often
operationalized through increased alpha power or related spectral changes, for
example, in neurofeedback or stress-reduction settings (Ewing et al., 2016; Krol
et
al., 2017; Klug, 2022). Another distinct target is the intent to interact: passive
BCIs
can distinguish spontaneous from goal-directed fixations by analyzing
fixation-related potentials, particularly when combined with an eye tracker. Studies
have shown that EEG during target fixations carries markers of intentional selection
(Protzak et al.,
incidental fixations and even smooth pursuit using EEG features (Shishkin
from
et al.,
2016; Zhao et al., 2021). Together, these paradigms demonstrate that passive
BCIs
can access a broad spectrum of cognitive, affective, and intentional states
2013), and that gaze fixations used for interaction can be separated
beyond workload and error.

25 From Brain Signals to Neuroadaptive Technology: BCIs for Human-Computer... 341
25.5 From Mental State Assessment to Neuroadaptive
Systems
25.5.1 Mental State Assessment as a First Stage
The most basic use of passive BCIs is mental state assessment (MSA). Here, brain
signals are recorded and decoded to estimate states such as workload or vigilance,
but these estimates are used mainly for monitoring or later analysis, not for direct
control. A fatigue-m onitoring app that records your state while working and lets you
review it afterwards is a typical example. Strictly speaking, this does not meet the
classical BCI definition, which requires both neural input and a system-level output
(Wolpaw & Wolpaw,
time
brain state decoding (RBSD) as an extension of cognitive monitoring (Zander &
Kothe, 2011), in line with neuroergonomics, which studies cognition at work and in
everyda
only
interactive systems and is one of the most mature real-world uses of passive BCIs
(Arico et al., 2018; Krol et al., 2018b).
y life (Parasuraman & Rizzo, 2007; Ayaz & Dehais, 2018). Although MSA
uses the “front half” of the BCI loop, it relies on the same decoding methods as
2012). The original passive BCI paper instead framed real-
25.5.2 Open- and Closed-Loop Adaptation
The next step is to let systems respond to decoded states. Open-loop adaptation
refers to one-off actions that do not directly change the triggering state, for example,
a high-workload estimate could be used to trigger a notification to take a break or
highlight a problematic interface element. Closed-loop adaptation changes task
parameters to influence the state itself, such as increasing automation or suppressing
non-essential information when workload rises in a driving or piloting task
(Kohlmorgen et al.,
cases, passive BCIs provide implicit input, but in closed-loop systems, the
both
adaptation becomes part of the mechanism that shapes the user’s mental state.
2007; Zander & Jatzev, 2012; Andreessen et al., 2021). In
25.5.3 Autonomous Adaptation, User Models, and Cognitive
Probing
The most powerful use of passive BCIs is to monitor mental states over longer
periods and relate them to contextual factors to build user models and enable
automated adaptation that anticipates problematic states (Zander & Jatzev, 2012;
Fairclo
ugh, 2017; Klaproth et al., 2020). Because decoding alone cannot specify why
state occurred, systems can actively manipulate their own settings to elicit diag-
a
nostic responses, an approach termed cognitive probing (Krol et al.,
2020).
Over

342 M. Klug et al.
time, such probes refine the user model and suppor t autonomous behavior that
increasingly approaches the goal state of the user (Zander et al.,
adapta
tions rely on internal states not explicitly offer ed as input, they must satisfy the
user-interest criterion: actions should be justifiable as being in the user’s best
interest and remain transparent and overridable (Krol & Zander, 2022).
2016). Since these
25.6 Practical Challenges
25.6.1 Mobility, Artifacts, and Non-stationarity
Real-world BCIs must operate under movement, changing environments, and varying user states. Mobile EEG introduces additional artifacts from motion, muscle
activity, and shifting electrode contact that may result in suboptimal data quality
(Gramann et al.,
is approaches, such as ICA, can help reduce this issue for MSA, real-time
analys
capable artifact attenuation approac hes, such as ASR (Mullen et al.,
requi
red for fully real-time applications in the wild. Even with good preprocessing,
the statistical properties of EEG change over time due to factors such as fatigue,
learning, electrode drift, or changing posture, a phenomenon commonly referred to
as non-stationarity (Blankertz et al., 2008; Samek et al., 2014). Classifiers trained on
short,
clean calibration sessions can degrade at long-term use or in different contexts.
Robust pBCIs therefore require not only better artifact handling but also models that
can track slow drifts and rapid changes in data distributions, for example, through
adaptive filters, online covariance updates, or periodic recalibration (Lotte et al.,
2018).
2011; Klug & Gramann, 2021; Klug et al., 2024). While offline
2015), may be
25.6.2 Cross-User and Cross-Session Generalization
Most current BCIs are still subject-specific: they require a dedicated calibration
session for each user and often for each new session or task. This calibration burden
is problematic for applied and consumer scenarios. Cross-session and cross-user
generalization are difficult because of individual differences in anatomy, cognitive
strategy, and noise profiles (Lotte et al.,
domai
n adaptation addresses this by aligning feature spaces across users or sessions,
re-weighting samples, or learning shared representations that are less sensitive to
distributional changes (Jayaram et al.,
ing, and few-shot adaptation are promising directions (Yger et al., 2017), but
learn
robust
zero-calibration BCIs rema in rare in practice. For passive BCIs in particular,
where the goal is to deploy workload or error decoders across tasks and contexts,
improving generalization is one of the central open challenges.
2018). Research on transfer learning and
2016). Riemannian alignment, multitask

25 From Brain Signals to Neuroadaptive Technology: BCIs for Human-Computer... 343
25.6.3 Evaluatio n in Real Settings
BCI performance is often reported as offline accuracy on well-controlled datasets,
but real-world evaluation requires broader metrics. In applied scenarios, task-rele-
vant outcomes such as driving performance, error rates, learning gains, or user
workload reduction are more informative than raw classification accuracy. Longitudinal and field studies are needed to assess robustness over days or weeks, as well as
user acceptance and trust. For pBCIs, cross-task application is particularly critical:
decoders trained in one paradigm are often applied to different tasks or environments, where signal characteristics and label structure change. Similarly, applying
event-based classifiers (e.g., error reaction decoders) continuously to live-streamed
data is nontrivial, as the live data may not have event markers at the same temporal
accuracy level as the training data, or no markers at all (Pan et al.,
framewo
rates, and the impact of neuroadaptive inte rventions on actual user behavior.
rks must therefore account for streaming performance, latency, false-alarm
2024). Evaluation
25.6.4 Ethics, Privacy, and Neurorights
BCIs and pBCIs raise distinctive ethical questions because they access signals that
are closely linked to perception, intention, and affect. Even simple workload or error
decoders can reveal information that users might prefer to keep private, such as
lapses of attention, fatigue, or preference patterns (Krol & Zander, 2022; Ienca &
Ando
rno, 2017). Responsible design requires transparency about which signals are
ed, how long they are stored, who can access them, and how adaptations are
record
triggered. Informed consent should cover not just data acqu isition but also the
possible inferences and system acti ons. Recent discussions of neurorights have
proposed protections for cognitive liberty, mental privacy, and mental integrity in
response to emerging neurotechnology (Ligthart et al., 2023; Yuste et al., 2017). For
neuroad
user-interest criterion is essential to maintain trust and ensure that powerful decoding
methods are used in ways that genuinely benefit users (Krol & Zander,
aptive systems based on passive BCIs, respecting these principles and the
2022).
25.7 Conclusions and Outlook
25.7.1 Key Takeaways
This chapter has outlined how BCIs transform neural activity into meaningful
system behavior. We distinguished active, reactive, and passive BCIs based on
whether signals are intentionally produced, stimulus-locked, or arise spontaneously
during ongoing cognition (Zander & Kothe, 2011). We then described the core

344 M. Klug et al.
pipeline from experimental design and signal acquisition through preprocessing,
feature extraction, machine learning, and validation (Lotte et al.,
and
oscillations providing the main signal families exploited for decoding.
2018), with ERPs
Within this landscape, passi ve BCIs occupy a special role. They do not replace
explicit input but add an implicit channel that tracks workload, attention, error
perception, surprise, or intent to interact in real time. We reviewed paradigms and
markers for these states and showed how they can be combined with context
information to support neuroadaptive systems. Finally, we discussed a spectrum of
interactivity—from mental state assessment and open-loop notifications to closedloop and autonomous adaptations driven by user models and cognitive probing—
underpinned by the user-interest criterion as a guardrail for responsible design (Krol
et al.,
2018b; Krol & Zander, 2022).
25.7.2 Future Trajectories
Several technical and conceptual developments are likely to shape the next generation of BCIs and neuroadaptive systems. On the hardware side, progress in wearable EEG, ear-EEG, and VR-integrated devices will improve comfort and ecological
validity, making long-term and mobile applications more realistic. On the algorithmic side, cross-session, cross-subject, and cross-task classifier generalization are the
most relevant frontiers at the moment. Both hardware and software improvements
are building towards a more user-friendly application of pBCIs, allowing their
widespread use.
Perhaps most intriguingly, passive BCIs can provide a rich feedback channel for
adapti
ve AI systems. Real-time estimates of workload, uncertainty, surprise, preference, or agreement could serve as implicit rewards or constraints for interactive
learning, helping AI systems to align their behavior with human goals and limits
more directly than behavioral logs alone. In such scenarios, pBCIs would not “read
thoughts” to replace speech but offer continuous, noisy measurements of how well
an AI is supporting the user in context. Combining these capabilities with
neurorights-informed safeguards for mental privacy and agency may enable artificial
assistants that are not only more capable, but also more genuinely understanding and
aligned with the people they serve.
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