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1 Anatomy, Histology, Applied Anatomy, and Physiology of the Human…
Cardiac magnetic resonance has the advantages of being non-invasive and avoidance of radiation or iodinated contrast agents. Additionally, it has good spatial resolution, high inherent soft-tissue contrast, a wide eld of view and ease of multiplanar
imaging. Thus, magnetic resonance imaging is a second line imaging modality for
evaluation of the pericardial inammation, small or loculated pericardial effusion,
characterization of pericardial mass and assessment of functional abnormalities.
The wide eld of view enables assessment of surrounding structures. However, use
of magnetic resonance is contraindicated in patients with mediastinal metallic clips/
coils, devices or cardiac implants, claustrophobia, patients with severe renal dysfunction, and haemodynamically unstable patients. Magnetic resonance imaging is
also not suitable for the detection of pericardial calcications [12–14, 65–68, 98,
99, 106, 113].
Black-blood T1-weighted spin echo cardiac magnetic resonance, using a fast,
segmented sequence is the best imaging modality to visualize pericardium, heart,
and mediastinal structures [12–14, 98]. Entire pericardium can be optimally visualised by obtaining images in two perpendicularly oriented planes through the heart.
T2-weighted spin-echo cardiac magnetic resonance, preferably using a short tau
inversion-recovery (STIR) sequence also called “triple-inversion” spin-echo provides information on myocardial edema, pericardial uid, and post inammatory
edematous pericardium [5, 68].
Cine-cardiac magnetic resonance using balanced steady state free precession
(SSFP) gradient echo sequences, is the reference technique to quantify regional and
global cardiac systolic function. The high spatial and temporal resolution of cinecardiac magnetic resonance can be applied for assessment of pericardial mobility
[65]. Cardiac magnetic resonance tagging techniques are useful to diagnose myocardial involvement in cases of constrictive pericarditis and in detecting brotic
adhesion of pericardial layers [88]. Velocity-encoded or phase-contrast cardiac
magnetic resonance modalities are helpful in assessment of diastolic cardiac function [12–14, 106, 113]. Thus, improved cardiac magnetic resonance-technology are
helpful for assessment of static morphology as well as integrated dynamic morphological functional approach [12–14, 106, 113].
On spin-echo cardiac magnetic resonance, pericardium is normally seen as a
smooth thin, curvilinear structure of low-intensity which is surrounded by mediumintensity myocardium or high-intensity epicardial and mediastinal fat [120].
Pericardial visualization of left ventricular free wall may be hampered by adjacent
lung parenchyma of low intensity and paucity of surrounding fat [120]. Retroaortic
and preaortic recesses and transverse pericardial sinus can be seen in majority of
cases [72, 79, 99, 120]. The superior pericardial recesses should not be mistaken for
enlarged lymph nodes or focal aortic dissection [72, 79, 99, 120]. On cardiac magnetic resonance, the normal pericardium measures 1.7mm in systole to 1.2mm in
diastole which is more than anatomical necropsy specimens i.e. 0.4–1mm [12–14,
20, 120]. The over estimation of the pericardial thickness on cardiac magnetic reso-
nance is attributed to lack of sufcient resolution, motion of pericardial layers, and
chemical shift artifacts at the fat uid interface on cine sequences.
1.24 Applied Anatomy ofAutologous Pericardium
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1.24 Applied Anatomy ofAutologous Pericardium
Literature documents extensive usage of either autologous or glutaraldehyde-treated
xed pericardial patches in several clinical settings as enumerated under:
• Congenital heart diseases such as atrial septal patch in the setting of ostium
secundum atrial septal defect, sinus venosus septal defect, scimitar syndrome,
partial, intermediate and complete atrioventricular septal defects, intra-atrial tun-
nelling of persistent unroofed left superior caval vein, rechaneling of primary
and redo totally anomalous pulmonary venous connections, ventricular septal
defect patch, superior cavoplasty, coronary artery transfer in cases of single coro-
nary artery, intramural coronary arteries during arterial switch operation, right
ventricular outow tract reconstruction during arterial switch operation, creation
of valved partitioning patches in atrial, ventricular septal defects, aortopulmo-
nary window, patch closure in recurrent ductus, transfer of anomalous left coro-
nary artery from the pulmonary artery using aortic and pulmonary arterial ap,
reconstruction of left brachiocephalic vein in patients with mediastinal venous
aneurysm, aortic arch reconstruction in neonates with univentricular and biven-
tricular morphology, Mustard’s procedure, modied Senning’s procedure, lateral
tunnel Fontan, extracardiac Fontan using in situ viable pericardial tunnel, right
ventricular outow tract reconstruction in patients undergoing intracardiac repair
for tetralogy of Fallot, pulmonary arterioplasty for hypoplastic pulmonary arter-
ies, stenosed pulmonary artery, transannular patching, pulmonary valvular
reconstruction in patients with tetralogy of Fallot, hypoplastic pulmonary valve
and annulus in cases of Noonan’s syndrome as part of Nick’s procedure, Konno’s
procedure, and pulmonary valvular reconstruction using either monocusp, or
bicusp or Graham Nunn’s procedure [21–48].
• Acquired heart diseases such as aortic valvular reconstruction (cuspal augmenta-
tion, Ozaki’s procedure), aortic cuspal reconstruction in perforated aortic cusps,
aortoplasty during Nick’s procedure, Doty’s procedure, mitral leaet augmenta-
tion, neochordal implantation, posterior collar autologous pericardial mitral
annuloplasty, segmental mitral annuloplasty, tricuspid valvular reconstruction in
the setting of tricuspid valvular infective endocarditis, reconstruction of free
right atrial wall following right atriectomy in cases of tumor excision, recon-
struction of left ventricle in the setting of ischemic ventricular rupture, surgical
ventricular reconstruction during Dor’s procedure, Cabrol stula in Bentall’s
procedure, repair of congenital left atrial aneurysm, articial mitral chordae, tra-
cheoplasty for tracheal stenosis, ventricular septal rupture, as a buttress material
for coronary artery anastomosis in the setting of Bentall’s procedure, distal aortic
suture line reinforcement during Bentall’s procedure, small and medium sized
arterial reconstruction, cardiac immobilization during off-pump coronary artery
bypass grafting, and left main osteoplasty [6, 7, 49–57, 59, 60, 63, 69, 70,
81–83, 100].
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1 Anatomy, Histology, Applied Anatomy, and Physiology of the Human…
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History
The earliest descriptions of the pericardium date back to Hippocrates (460–377BC).
Galen (129–210AD) described the protective function of the pericardium and also
reported pericardial effusion in animals [1, 2, 21]. Serobrinous pericarditis was
described by Avenzoar (1113–1162), and clinical outcome of pericardial adhesions
was noted by Lancisi (1654–1720) [1, 2, 38]. Pulsus paradoxus and cardiac tampon-
ade in patients with dyspnea was rst reported by Richard Lower in 1669 and John
Mayow in 1674 [38, 40]. Morgagni in 1756 described pathophysiology of constrictive pericarditis [41]. Lancisi in 1828 explained the characteristic syndrome associated with constrictive pericarditis [1, 39]. Chever in 1842 described a treatise on the
pathophysiology of constrictive pericarditis based on his observations made on diseased aortic valves and orice, where he noted that compression of muscle tissue by
adhesive pericarditis surrounding the heart resulted in dangerous symptoms [9].
Corrigan described the buit de frappement (pericardial knock) in the same
year [9–11].
In 1873, Kussmaul described the association between constrictive pericarditis
and pulsus paradoxus [34, 35]. He also described jugular venous distension during
inspiration, known as Kussmaul’s sign. Pick in 1896 reported progressive or recurrent ascites with little or no pedal oedema, and hepatomegaly (“pseudo cirrhosis”- a
condition known as Pick’s disease) in three patients [42].Postmortem showed presence of atypical hepatic brosis (pseudo-cirrhosis) and adhesive pericarditis.
Polyserositis was seen in Concato’s patients [38]. The main difference in cases of
constrictive pericarditis mentioned by Concato was that cardiac compression
resulted in effusion in serous cavities, with no inammation of serous membrane or
occurring secondarily. There were thick cartilaginous deposits on normal valves
with small sized heart in patients presenting with adhesive pericarditis [38].
St. Cyre’s Lecture by Paul Dudley White’s in 1935 introduced the modern era of
diagnosis and treatment of constrictive pericarditis [53, 54]. Bloomeld and associates, Hansen and associates, Hetzel, and Hancock independently reported elevated
right ventricular end-diastolic pressure, right atrial pressure, right ventricular dip
Ltd. 2023
U. K. Chowdhury, L. K. Sankhyan, Surgical Treatment of Chronic Constrictive
Pericarditis, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-5808-5_2
23© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte
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