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9.9 Diagnostic Procedures
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9.9 Diagnostic Procedures
9.9.1 Sonography
Sonography remains the diagnostic procedure of choice [91, 129, 145, 146]. The
features specic for hepatic vein obstruction on colour Doppler imaging and Pulsed
wave Doppler analysis are:
i. Usually at least one of the three hepatic veins should be visualized except in
cases of Budd-Chiari syndrome [146];
ii. A large hepatic vein void of ow signal, or with reversed or turbulent ow;
iii. The hepatic veins may show thickened walls, areas of stenosis, irregularity and
proximal dilation and thrombosis;
iv. A spider-web appearance in the vicinity of hepatic vein ostia with absence of
normal hepatic veins in the area;
v. A hyperechoic cord replacing a normal hepatic vein in the area;
vi. Large intrahepatic or subcapsular collaterals with continuous ow connecting
hepatic veins or diaphragmatic or intercostal veins;
vii. An absent or at hepatic vein wave form without uttering;
viii. Associated hepatic parenchymal changes including atrophy of right lobe,
hypertrophy of lateral segment of left lobe, and enlargement of caudate
lobe; and
ix. Compression of inferior caval vein by a swollen liver.
A distinctive feature of Budd-Chiari syndrome is the presence of intrahepatic or
subcapsular hepatic venous collaterals in over 80% of cases.
9.9.2 Computed Tomography
A non-contrast enhanced scan demonstrates ascites, hepatomegaly and cirrhosis.
Contrast computed tomography may demonstrate the absence of visualization of
hepatic veins and a central “fan-shaped” patchy area of increased attenuation which
later fades as it radiates from retrohepatic portion of inferior caval vein [147, 247].
Other elicitable ndings are compression and attening of retrohepatic inferior
caval vein and an enlarged caudate lobe [15, 16].
9.9.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Magnetic resonance imaging allows imaging in multiple planes and delineation of
vascular structures in great detail without the need for intravenous contrast agents
[15, 16]. Magnetic resonance imaging shows hepatomegaly, ascites, and
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9 Diseases Mimicking Constrictive Pericarditis: Salient Features and Novel Strategies…
inhomogeneous liver parenchyma, slow ow, and thrombosis of hepatic veins.
Tumour involvement varies and splenomegaly can be demonstrated.
9.9.4 Angiography
Angiographic procedures utilized in suspected cases of Budd-Chiari syndrome
include inferior caval venography, hepatic wedge venography, and coeliac/superior
mesenteric arteriography [248]. However, it may fail to recognize laminar clots, and
only demonstrate smooth narrowing of cava [251].
Hepatic venography may demonstrate a tumor, clot or webs. The collateral
hepatic veins show a characteristic ‘spider-web’ pattern. Pressure measurement can
reveal the gradient at the site of obstruction [61]. Selective coeliac arteriography
demonstrates diffuse narrowing, stretching and pruning of hepatic arteries [148].
9.9.5 Percutaneous Liver Biopsy
Percutaneous liver biopsy is of paramount importance in diagnosing and following
up patients with Budd-Chiari syndrome. Computed tomographic guided biopsy
specimens from the lobes of liver must therefore be obtained.
On microscopy, centrilobular congestion and necrosis are classically observed
[135]. Demonstration of organized thrombi in the main hepatic veins is diagnostic.
Eventually, central brosis and periportal regenerative nodules form. Finally, endstage disease reveals widespread brosis, that no longer follows a zonal
distribution.
9.10 Therapeutic Procedures
9.10.1 Underlying Risk Factors forThrombosis
The underlying myeloproliferative disease should be treated. The role of acetyl salicylic acid for treatment of Budd-Chiari syndrome is ill dened [62]. Oral contraceptives are contraindicated in these patients t. Although uncomplicated pregnancies
have been reported with anticoagulation during the entire pregnancy, it is uncertain
whether pregnancy should be avoided [195, 236, 265].
9.10 Therapeutic Procedures
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169
9.10.2 Anticoagulation Therapy
Indenite anticoagulation therapy is warranted after an episode of idiopathic deep
vein thrombosis in patients with a risk factor and incurable thrombophilia [18, 46,
66, 149, 150, 181, 184, 230, 287].
9.10.3 Thrombolysis
There is inconclusive data on the efcacy and tolerance of thrombolysis [17, 231].
There is some success on the in-situ infusion of thrombolytic agents along with
angioplasty or stenting [17, 231].
9.10.4 Percutaneous Transluminal Angioplasty
Since the initial report by Meier and associates, percutaneous transluminal angioplasty has been used in the treatment of patients with Budd-Chiari syndrome [158,
236, 252]. This modality has been used successfully for three types of lesions:
i. Focal stenosis of hepatic veins or inferior vena cava;
ii. Segmental stenosis of the hepatic portion of the inferior vena cava;
iii. Occlusion of the hepatic portion of the inferior vena cava.
This approach has a high success rate and obviates major surgery [77, 78, 101, 155,
172, 248]. However, there is limited data on percutaneous transluminal angioplasty
with or without stenting [19, 63, 64, 70, 118–120, 129, 151, 152, 173, 188, 230,
249, 272, 273, 275, 276, 281–284, 287].
9.10.5 Surgery
The natural history of Budd-Chiari syndrome is poorly dened. A few patients have
been prescribed diuretics and anticoagulation. Surgery in the form of hepatoatrial
anastomosis has been progressively abandoned. The great majority require portal
decompression to avoid hepatic failure and ascites. However, circulatory changes
seen in these patients are different from cirrhosis of liver.
Since patients with Budd-Chiari syndrome patients do not exhibit systemic vasodilation or increase in cardiac output even though they have activated vasoactive
neurohumoral systems and expanded plasma volume [92, 93]. Therefore β adrenergic blockade and endoscopic ligation should not be preferred as a rst line of
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9 Diseases Mimicking Constrictive Pericarditis: Salient Features and Novel Strategies…
therapy in patients who are not candidates for angioplasty or transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunting (TIPS) [181].
Depending on the patency of inferior caval vein and technical limitations related
to caudate lobe enlargement, numerous variants of surgical side-to-side shunts have
been used, such as the combination of porto-caval or meso-caval shunts with inferior caval venous bypass or stenting. Overall perioperative mortality averages 25%
[130]. Surgical portosystemic shunting has failed to show any impact on survival in
several large studies [94, 130–134, 186, 244, 287].
9.10.6 Surgical Factors
In recent years, transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunting (TIPS) is increasingly being used for Budd-Chiari syndrome treatment in patients [2, 19, 47, 67, 79,
121, 149, 151, 173, 187, 191, 192, 221, 231, 244, 276] unresponsive to medical
therapy. Although surgery was successful in over 80% of patients, hepatic dysfunction was reported in over half of the patients on follow-up of 24months. The mortality was <10% at 1month and 20% overall. Ten percent of patients required liver
transplantation. Some patients who underwent TIPS ultimately required liver transplantation [2, 47, 67, 79, 103, 111, 120, 129, 154, 187, 191, 192, 221, 231, 276].
9.10.7 Current Treatment Strategy
In 2003 and 2005, international expert panels deliberated the following consensus
statements adopting a stepwise grade approach for the management of patients with
Budd-Chiari syndrome: (1) anticoagulation, treatment of underlying condition, and
symptomatic treatment for complications like portal hypertension; (2) angioplasty/
stenting; (3) transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt(TIPS) in unresponsive
patients; (4) liver transplantation in refractory cases (Fig.9.1) [64, 98, 100].
A precise delineation of the obstruction is crucial for planning therapy. Hence,
direct venography with measurement of pressure gradient across stenoses is necessary in addition to noninvasive imaging. This can be accomplished during recanalization or TIPS insertion procedure.
9.10.8 Current Outcomes
The last 4 decades have witnessed further improvement. Recently, an overall 5-year
survival rate of over 80% have been reported [67, 153, 181, 187, 193].
No
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171
Fig. 9.1 Management
strategy of Budd-Chiari
syndrome patients,using a
stepwise implementation
of therapeutic options in
order of increasing
invasiveness [64, 98]
Manifestations
Ye s
Anticoagulation
Medical therapy
Angioplasty
Thrombolysis
Stenting
Transplantation
Anticoagulation
TIPS
The current concern for long-term outcome is focused on the development of
hepatocellular carcinoma, and of aggravation or transformation of underlying
hematological disease [43].
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