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royal botanical gardens of that time presented an enormous variety of native and
exotic plants, which were cultivated there
for their colorfulness, richness of form, delightful fragrance, and, last but not least, for
their culinary and medicinal benefits (Scott,
1904). The Andalusian philosopher and botanist Ibn Bajjah also went into more detail
about the physiology of the various plant
species in his book Kitāb al-Nabāt (Book of
Plants). For the first time, he also described
the individual influence of different local en
vironmental conditions (desert areas, mountains, river banks, sea coast, and different
types of soil) (Samso etal., 1996).
Without any doubt, one of the most
famous Muslim herbalists was Abu Dāwud
Sulaymān ben Hassan, who is also mentioned in literature as “Ibn Juljul al-Andalusī”. He was born in Córdoba in 943 and
was widely respected at a very early stage for
his extensive knowledge and his special ability to determine the individual geographical
origin of plants (Amar et al., 2014). Beside
botany, Ibn Juljul also studied medicine together with a group of Hellenists chaired by
Hasdāy ibn Shaprūt, a Jewish physician and
vizier of Caliph Abd al-Rahmān III, and later
became the personal physician of Caliph
Hishām II ( 976–1009) (Calvo, 2008). He
is also known as a famous author of the two
books T abaqāt al-Attibbāʾwa ’l-hukamāʾ (Gen-
erations of Physicians and Wise Men), which is
the oldest existing summary of the history
of medicine in Arabic, and Ishāq ibn Hunayn’s
Tarikh al-Atibbāʾ (History of Physicians by
Ishāq ibn Hunayn, A History of Medicine with
57 Biographies from Nine Generations).
Thirty-one of them concern Asian authors,
while the others refer to African and Andalusian scholars. For his pharmacopoeia, Ibn
Juljul used several Eastern (Hippocrates,
Galen, Dioscorides) and Western sources
(Orosius, Isidore) and also described the
chronological limits of Latin influence on
medicine in Andalusia. This history contains
brief sections on each period, beginning
with the legendary fathers of medicine, but
is probably of greatest interest because of
Ibn Juljul’s account of his predecessors and
contemporaries in Andalusia. In this context, he refers in particular to the intensive
contacts that existed between the Eastern
Caliphate and Andalusia, as well as to students who undertook extended journeys in
search of knowledge and education (Amar
etal., 2014).
Building on his studies of Dioscorides, Ibn
Juljul wrote a supplement he called maqālah,
containing 60 articles that focused specifically
on “those drugs that Dioscorides had not mentioned” (Johnstone, 1999) (Fig. 3.5).
This work largely follows the familiar
scheme of earlier authors in giving references to the appearance, action, and nature
of each plant. However, in addition, their
“temperament (mizādj)”, their “power”, and
their “effect on a particular spirit or organ”
are also described in detail (Ghāfiqī et al.,
1932–1940). Ibn Juljul also mentions the
respective origin of the plants, as far as they
were known to him: 28 came from India, two
from Yemen, two others from Egypt, and
one from the island of Ceylon. Only a few
plant samples were collected in Andalusia
(Johnstone, 1999). For the samples from
Andalusia, Ibn Juljul sometimes added the
name of that person who had first used the
plant or told him something about it. For example, there is a detailed account of the collectors of monk’s pepper (Vitex agnus-castus).
But he also documents some personal descriptions of the collected Syrian rhubarb
(Rheum ribes): “I inquired about ‘ribas’ from
some people in the Far East, who told me
that it is a sour-tasting vegetable with fleshy
leaves resembling those of succulents.” Another trader who was familiar with the use
of “ribas” informed him “that the plant had
extremely sour roots” (Savage-Smith, 2012).
It is particularly noteworthy that Ibn Juljul
respected the ancient knowledge of the
Greeks, but did not simply translate their
books; rather, he added valuable contributions to the practical knowledge and individual use of medicinal plants, and for this
reason in particular was highly respected by
contemporary and later scholars and physicians (Johnstone, 1999).
Several Muslim travelers also made important contributions to a more comprehensive and at the same time systematic
development of botanical knowledge in Spain
by providing their individual knowledge of
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Fig. 3.5. Physician preparing an elixir (folio from a manuscript of De materia medica written by
Dioscorides (c.AD 40–90)). (By Marie-Lan Nguyen (2011), Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.
org/w/index.php?curid=17769084.)
nature and especially of the origins of various plant species. For example, the physician al-Ghāfiqi from Córdoba (12th century
) collected numerous plants on his travels
through Spain and North Africa and named
them in Arabic, Latin, and Berber. Abu Zakariyā
ibn al-‘Awwām, another botanist and farmer
who lived at the same time, wrote a treatise
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on agriculture (Kitāb al-Filāha) that is the
first outstanding medieval work on this subject. He consulted both Greek and Arab specialists, but drew most of his knowledge
from his own studies of agriculture in Spain
itself. He described a total of 585 different
plant species and also went into more detail
on the cultivation of about 50 types of fruit
(Hitti, 1937) (Fig. 3.6).
The Moroccan traveler and botanist Ibn
Bat ttutah (14th century ) described in his
travelogues (in Arabic: Rihlah) the various
fruit varieties he discovered in Isphahan
(apricots, quinces, grapes, and watermelons)
and, in addition, the fruit trees he got to
know on his travels through India, such as
mango and sweet orange. In Malabar he
discovered cinnamon (C. verum) and in the
Fig. 3.6. A scene of agricultural work with a man digging herbaceous plants with a spade, among
cultivated trees, from a medieval Arabic manuscript from Al-Andalus (Islamic Spain). (http://www.
muslimheritage.com/article/agriculture-muslim-civilisation-green-revolution-pre-modern-times, Public
Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=57929949.)
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Maldives and the island of Java he could see
other exotic species such as oil palm (Elaeis
guineensis), lemon (Citrus × limon), camphor
(C. camphora), storax (Styrax officinalis), and
clove (Syzygium aromaticum) trees (Defrem-
ery and Sanguinetti, 1929). In the second half
of the Abbasid Caliphate and during the
Western Caliphate, Muslims also contributed
in a special way to increasing the knowledge
of organic and inorganic remedies as well as
to improve the preparation of pharmaceutical
drugs. During this period, there was also a
greater separation between the medical and
pharmaceutical professions for the first time,
which was mainly due to the described ad
vances in materia medica and in the knowledge of how to produce phytomedicines.
Thus, the large hospitals in Iraq already had a
pharmacist and a well-equipped pharmacy
where the medicinal products were compiled
and the doctors’ prescriptions prepared and
filled according to individual instructions.
Medicines and spices were also stored in
these pharmacies for the first time (Elgood,
1951). Among the Baghdadi scholars, the
Christian physician Māsawaih al-Mārdini
from Mārdin in Mesopotamia (10th century
) deserves special mention. He lived first in
Baghdad and then later in Cairo under the
rule of Caliph al-H ākim (Wiet etal ., 1975). He
achieved fame in later monastic medicine
through the pharmacopoeia he wrote, which
dealt in particular with more complex mixtures of medicines as well as specific medicines for certain diseases (Wiet etal., 1975).
Abu al-Abbas al-Ashbili (Abul-Abbas
of Seville) known as Ibn Rumiyyah was the
first scientist to succeed in extending botanical knowledge, which until then had focused
mainly on the agricultural production of
food plants, to medicinal plants and their
practical use in pharmacy (Scott, 1904).
However, there was still no clear dividing
line between food and medicines, as many
plant products were clearly assigned to both
categories (Johnstone, 1999).
Islamic botany also gradually developed
an advanced methodology and new approach, opening the way to the current state
of science. This can be seen, for example, in
the treatise of Ali ben Abbās al-Madjusi
known as Haly Abbas (10th century ),
who proposed different dosages for the
treatment of individual diseases and the use
of differently composed medicines in separate chapters, thus providing a very complete
and well-organized account of medicine of
that time (Levey, 1997).
Very often, Muslim scholars were even
far ahead of their Greek predecessors in the
use of medicinal plants, so that the Muslim
list of medicines contained a large number
of remedies unknown to the Greeks (Wiet
et al., 1975). Thus, Ibn Juljul was already
aware of the fact that medicine and botany
had evolved since the days of Dioscorides
and that the newly identified herbal raw ma
terials that were increasingly used to make
medicines came mainly from the East or
were collected in Andalusia (Johnstone,
1999). In general, Muslims gave Arabic
names to the new plant species and medi
cines, and many of these names are still used
today (al-Faruqi and al-Faruqi, 1986). For
example, the work of Ibn al-Awwām lists
600 medicinal plants, while Ibn al-Bayt ār’s
book even describes more than 300 previously unclassified or unknown plants (Scott,
1904).
In medical history, Ābu Hanīfah Ahmad
ibn Dāwūd Dīnawarī ( 828–896), who is
considered the founder of Arab botany, can
certainly be called one of the earliest Muslim
botanists (Ulmann, 1972). He was a polymath with profound knowledge of astronomy, agriculture, botany, and metallurgy, as
well as geography, mathematics, and history. Born in Dinawar (a city in western
Iran), he studied astronomy, mathematics,
and mechanics in Isfahan and philology and
poetry in Kufah and Basrah. His work,
largely confined to the flora of Arabia (Elgood, 1951), is perhaps the most comprehensive and methodologically best work on
herbs of his time. Al-Dinawari’s work was
long considered lost, but was made available
to a wider public in 1908 in a dissertation
from Breslau (Silberberg, 1908). This dissertation contains the descriptions of about
400 plant species from al-Dinawari’s book,
although these records only describe a part
of his original work. The information from
al-Dinawari is based on older written
sources, on oral information from Bedouins,
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and occasionally on several personal observations. His book, entitled Kitāb an-Abāt
(Book of Plants), consists of two parts, one of
which is an alphabetical index of the names
of herbal medicines (and thus the first alphabetically arranged technical dictionary).
The second part contains monographs on
plant species that were used for specific
practical purposes at that time (Hamidullah,
1973).
The work entitled Firdaws al-Hikmah
(Paradise of Wisdom), which was written by
al-Tabari before the time of al-Dinawari, includes botany as well as other scientific disciplines such as climatology, astronomy, and
philosophy, but nevertheless refers primarily to medicinal plants. Al-Kindī ( 800–
866), on the other hand, is considered an
innovator in compiling a herbal manual that
would teach useful botanical pharmacology
as well as toxicology and medicines derived
from minerals (Scarborough, 1980). His
Aqrabādin (Medical Formulary) contains 222
recipes with at least 319 raw materials, corresponding to Muslim pharmacology of the
9th century .
At early Islamic scholars such as Jabir
Ibn Hayyān, Hunayn Ibn Ishāq, and others,
the Greek influence is still clearly visible. For
example, Ibn Wahshiyah ( 860–935) describes very well the state of knowledge at
that time on the use of medicinal plants and
the corresponding pharmacology in his
herbology entitled Kitāb al-Sumum wa-’l-
Teryāqāt (Book of Poisons and Antidotes)
(Scarborough, 1980). In another work, he
describes the Al-Filahah al-Nabatiyah (Naba-
taean Agriculture) as the first comprehensive
encyclopedia on plants and their individual
agricultural cultivation (Fahd, 1993/1995,
1996).
Al-Dinawari also devotes a chapter to
the classification of plants (“Tajnis alNabāt”), whereby his descriptions clearly exceed the scope of a usual botanical dictionary,
as he also tried to cover all aspects of Bedouin life (Bauer, 1988). In his treatise on
soil, al-Dinawari describes a variety of different soil types, explaining, among other
things, which soils are particularly suitable
for cultivation in each case. He also goes into
more detail about the development of the
individual plants (ontogenesis), the individual growth periods, and the production of
flowers and fruits. In addition, he also describes individual cultivated plant species
such as cereals, grapes, and date palms
(Fahd, 1996; Johnstone, 1999).
Compared to Ibn Juljul, the herbalist
Ibn Samjun, who lived and worked in Córdoba (10th century ), has been somewhat
neglected. However, several manuscripts of
his work, in which he wrote about Islamic
pharmacology, have been preserved in
Oxford and London (Kahle, 1952). His exact
description of the remedies in alphabetical
order later became the model for Ibn al
-
Baytār, who wrote the most comprehensive
pharmacologic book in this form (Lewin,
1953). The botanical writings of Ibn alBayt ār ( 1197–1248), written in Arabic,
are generally considered a high point of ancient medicine. Ibn al-Baytār was born in
Malaga, studied in Seville, where he also collected plants together with his teachers and
started to journey through Spain and North
Africa. Later, he lived as a leading herbalist
in Cairo and from there undertook extensive
travels through Syria and Asia Minor. Ibn alBayt ār was a disciple of Ibn Rumiyah, Abu
al-Abbas al-Nabāti (the botanist), and was
also strongly influenced by al-Ghāfiqi’s
(12th century ) Kitāb al-Adwiyat al-Mofra-
dah (The Book of Simple Drugs). Of his out-
standing works, one referred to “Materia
medica”, and another one to “simple remedies”, by which are meant medicinal preparations containing only one single ingredient.
Ibn al-Bayt ār wrote his work al-Mughni fi
al-Adwiyah (The Sufficient) in Arabic. In the
work, which is divided into 20 chapters, he
describes in particular the methods for curing various diseases of the head and ears and
for making cosmetics and simple antidotes.
Ibn al-Bayt ār best known work, however, is Al-Kitāb ’l-Jāmʿi fi ’l-Aghdiya wa-’l-Ad-
wiyah al-Mofradah (The Comprehensive Book
of Foods and Simple Remedies), the most com-
prehensive encyclopedic work on simple
drugs. It was the greatest medieval treatise
on this subject and a fundamental work on
botany, describing 3000 samples, all listed in
alphabetical order (Tayarani-Najaran et al.,
2014).
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Ibn Al-Wāfid ( 997–1075) from Toledo was also esteemed as a very successful
scientist of his time. It is reported that he
spent about 20 years collecting, arranging,
and checking all the names of medicines,
their individual properties, and potency. In
doing so, he favored dietary measures, and
when medicines were needed, he preferred
the simple ones before recommending compounded medicines, and when using compounded medicines, he also preferred the
less complex ones (Meyer, 1854). His main
work on simple medicines, Kitāb al-Adwiya
al-Mufrada, has been partially preserved in a
Latin translation (Liber de medicamentis sim-
plicibus) (Wustenfeld, 1840) (Fig. 3.7).
Fig. 3.7. Farmer harvesting melons. (A plate from the Vienna Tacuinum Sanitatis (Codex Vindobonensis
Series nova 2644 of the Austrian National Library). Scan from: Hans Biedermann – Medicina Magica,
Metaphysische Heilmethoden in spätantiken und mittelalterlichen Handschriften, Akademische Druck- und
Verlagsanstalt Graz, 1978 2. Aufl. S. 53, ISBN 3-201-01077-4. Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.
org/w/index.php?curid=6099643.)
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Al-Ghafiqi (first half of the 12th century ), who also came from the surrounding area of Córdoba, integrated into his
work, which was called Kitāb al-Jāmʿi fi ’l-Ad-
wiyah al-Mofradah (Book of Simple Medicines),
mainly new plant species that had not been
mentioned until then in the classical Greek
sources or in comparable botanical manuals
from the Muslims (Scarborough, 1980).
Finally, two other botanists from the Islamic
West should be mentioned here: firstly, Ibn
Sirābiyun, who, however, cannot be exactly
assigned in terms of time due to the lack of
historical sources. His work entitled Selecta
artis medico is mainly based on the writings
of Dioscorides and Galen. Secondly, the
Muslim botanist Rashid al-Din Ibn al-Suri,
who is described as a contemporary of Ibn
al-Bayt ār, studied medicine in Damascus
and then worked in a hospital in Jerusalem.
Al-Suri wrote a treatise on simple medicine,
al-Adwiyah al-Mofradah, in which he mainly
refuted the statements of his colleague Tāj
al-Din al-Bulghāri, who had published his
ideas in a similar book. Ibn al-Suri was particularly distinguished by his extensive
travels, especially to the mountains of Lebanon, to discover and collect medicinal and
aromatic plants. During his trips he was accompanied by an artist whose task was to
depict the plants in their various stages of
growth as faithfully as possible and in color
(Sarton, 1927–1948). His work was the first
example of an Arabic book to be illustrated
in color, but unfortunately this work is now
considered lost (Scott, 1904).
Traditional Persian culture, with its
highly developed medicine and the extensive knowledge of numerous medicinal
plants, was exposed for centuries to the influences of the Greeks and Romans in particular. The use of plants as medicines or
foodstuff dates back several millennia. Nowadays, various strategies are being used to
find new and effective drugs from natural
sources. To this end, investigating folk and
traditional medicine systems, such as TPM,
is a rational strategy owing to their antiquity
and long-term history of human use. In
TPM, considerable attention has been paid
to the qualities of individual herbs. The general and specific properties of each herb such
as its nature, natural habitat, energy pattern, effects, indications, duration of action,
relationships to the body organs, toxicity
and contraindications, dosage, types of preparations, and antidotes are discussed.
Images of medical plants can already be
found on the cuneiform writing tablets of
the ancient Babylonian culture, and it is
transmitted that the Egyptians were already
aware of the antibacterial effects related to
the impact of garlic (Allium sativum) and
onion (Allium cepa). The medical knowledge
of these advanced civilizations, which ori
ginated primarily in the Orient, was taken
up by the Greeks in ancient times and therefore they can be regarded as the founders of
Western medicine. In this context the physician Hippocrates of Kos (460–370 ), who
was one of the most outstanding ancient
scholars in medicine and philosophy, must
be mentioned. In his written records he described not only numerous herbal preparations for the treatment of various diseases
but also developed a systematic categorization of diseases known at that time. The
Hippocratic school of medicine revolutionized ancient Greek medicine, establishing it
as a discipline distinct from other fields with
which it had traditionally been associated
and thus establishing medicine as an independent profession (Fig. 3.8).
The first detailed book on medicinal
plants was written around 60 by the
Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides (
40–90), who practiced in Rome. He summarized the basics of herbal medicine for the
first time in his book De materia medica,
which quickly became a standard work of
European medicine with its description of
around 600 medicinal plants. De materia
medica was very popular until the 17th century, especially because there was an original illustration of every medicinal plant
and the individual plant names were provided not only in Latin but also in Greek and
Egyptian.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, the
reference to the ancient Greek scriptures
gradually disappeared. Even from Hippocrates (around 400 ) and his important pupil
Galen of Pergamon (around 129–216), to
whom the systematization of the theory of
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Fig. 3.8. Fresco in the crypt of Anagni’s Cathedral (13th century AD) representing Hippocrates of Kos as
teacher and Claudius Galen as student. (By Nina Aldin Thune, CC BY-SA 2.5, https://commons.wikimedia.
org/w/index.php?curid=795032.)
the humors goes back, important information was lost in medieval Western Europe,
except for small excerpts. The remaining
writings were translated into Latin by the
Roman scholar Cassiodorus ( 485–580)
after his retreat to the monastery of Monte
Cassino and were thus preserved.
Almost even more important, however,
was the translation of the ancient pharmacognosy “De materia medica” into Latin per-
formed by Pedanios Dioscorides (1st century
) which was later the basis to develop
drug therapy in Europe.
Galen’s main medical work is entitled
Methodus medendi (The Therapeutic Method),
where he follows the central idea that all
phenomena in nature and in man fulfil a certain purpose. In this context Galen presumes that man is a body–soul entity that is
mainly influenced by a dualism of mind and
matter. He assumed that the balance of four
elements (black bile, yellow bile, blood, and
phlegm) principally influence nature (humans, animals, and plants) and that the relationship of these humors to each other is of
central importance, because a disturbance of
the individual balance would lead to indisposition and illness. This theory also included the idea of the Greek physician
Alkmaion (around 600 ) who assumed
that health can be described as the harmony
of pairs of opposites, as it is also found in
the Yin–Yang principle of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM).
In his books entitled De placitis Hippoc-
ratis et Platonis (On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato), written between 161 and 177
, Galen attempts to prove that the ideas of
the physician Hippocrates and the philosopher Plato about the soul forces, which are
supposed to control the mental and physical
processes in body, coincide more or less.
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The pharmacology of the Islamic, Arabic,
and Occidental cultural areas was oriented
toward Galen’s complicated formulations
until the late Middle Ages and it was only
under the influence of Paracelsus’ medical
teachings that this situation changed. Galen’s systematically developed work, which
was also translated into Syriac and Arabic by
Hunain ibn Ishāq ( 808–873) in the Early
Middle Ages, was of such importance for
posterity in its scope and scientific level that
it took 1400 years for it to be slowly over
-
come by more recent research.
In the 16th century , the so-called “Galenists” (e.g., Leonhart Fuchs) as followers of
Galen’s teachings and the “Arabists”, who
mainly referred to Avicenna (Strohmaier,
1999), were irreconcilably opposed to each
other. The more medical-oriented “Galenism”
was on the advance at this time, whereas
“Arabism” was in retreat; likewise there were
several disputes between “Galenists” and the
so-called “Paracelsists” (Schmitz, 1984; Durling, 1989; Schipperges and Durling, 1989).
Paracelsism was an early modern medical
movement based on the theories and therapies of Paracelsus ( 1493–1541) who was a
Swiss physician, alchemist, lay theologian, and
philosopher of the German Renaissance.
The great European monarch Charlemagne ( 748–814) also made a significant
contribution to the development of monastic medicine by issuing a new decree with the
name Capitulare de villis that made it obligatory for all monasteries and towns to establish herb gardens and also prescribed in
detail a kind of standard for monastery gardens. For example, a separate bed was required for each medicinal plant species and
for all medicinal plants to be used, such as
sage (Salvia officinalis), wormwood (Arte-
misia absinthium), fennel (F. vulgare), opium
poppy (P. somniferum), lovage (Levisticum of-
ficinale), chervil (Anthriscus cerefolium), vari-
ous types of radish (Raphanus spp.),
peppermint (M. × piperita), and spearmint
(Mentha spicata), he specified exactly how
the individual species should be cultivated
(Strank and Meurers-Balke, 2008). Since
Charlemagne’s empire at that time extended
as far as Italy and southern France, the list
of cultivated medicinal plants also contains
several Mediterranean species, which could
obviously be cultivated in Central Europe
without any problems due to the warm
period that prevailed at that time.
Future Role of Traditional
Persian/Iranian Medicine
In general, Traditional Medicine has the
advantage of being considered part of the
respective culture, thus circumventing cultural problems that might interfere with the
practice of “modern” medicine. Moreover, it
can be used in conjunction with and as a
support to conventional medicine. The further development and promotion of Traditional Medicine can therefore also be seen
as a respect and appreciation of the individual culture and heritage of people around
the world. As has been shown in this chapter, TPM/TIM contains the extensive knowledge used in Persia from ancient times to
present days to diagnose, prevent, and eliminate various diseases. It is based solely on
practical experiences and observations
passed down from generation to generation
(Rezaeizadeh etal., 2009).
Most parts obtained from medicinal
plants, such as leaves, roots, flowers, and
seeds, are used either in the form of extracts
(e.g., tea infusions from a mixture of different herbs) or as isolated, more or less purified plant constituents (Nikbakht and Kafi,
2008). The individual healing effects are due
to the effectiveness of different chemical
substances in more or less complex plant
mixtures. The chemical active components
can mainly be attributed to secondary plant
metabolites such as alkaloids, amino acids,
flavonoids, carotenoids, saponins, phytos
terols, coumarins, and terpenoids. Even today,
medicinal and aromatic plants are still of
great economic importance worldwide, as
they represent important, sustainable raw
materials not only for the production of
phytopharmaceuticals, but also in the
perfume, aroma, and cosmetics industries
(Najafi etal., 2010).
Essential oils and solvent extracts ob-
tained from various medicinal plants, herbs,
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and spices in most cases contain a complex
mixture of biologically active ingredients.
Even today, essential oils are widely used not
only for medicinal purposes and flavoring,
but also in food production due to their individual antimicrobial activity and associated
preservative properties (Nejad Ebrahimi
et al., 2008). Compared to synthetic medicines, herbal medicines and their ingredients
usually do not have adverse effects on humans (Banerjee, 2002). It is known from history that many infectious diseases have been
successfully treated with herbal remedies
(Nezhadali and Zarrabi Shirvan, 2010).
Therefore, the use of traditional and medicinal plants in developing countries is still an
important basis for maintaining health in
these countries today (de Silva, 1997). Also
recently, medicinal and aromatic plants have
gained increasing importance in various sectors such as agroindustry, the perfume industry, the phytopharmaceutical industry,
and natural cosmetics (Khorasaninejad etal.,
2010). Over a long period, medicinal plants
have played an important role in the treatment of many diseases, especially in Asian
and African countries (Fallah-Hoseini etal.,
2006). As ancient documents show, certain
plants were already used for various medicinal purposes in ancient Persia (Nikbakht
and Kafi, 2008). Today, in Iran several projects are also carried out to further explore
the importance of herbal medicine, sometimes with the support of modern analytical
techniques, and in this way to highlight the
special therapeutic benefits of medicinal
plants over some synthetic drugs (Nikbakht
et al., 2008). In contrast to Traditional
Medicine, the current (modern) approach to
evaluate the efficacy of herbal medicines is
predominantly based on the aim to identify
and quantify the individual plant substances
occurring in medicinal herbs as precisely as
possible. In this context, the individual substances related to various chemical groups
are detected by means of very sensitive and
reliable chromatographic and spectroscopic
analytical methods.
For a long time, traditional medicine
methods were marginalized compared to the
steady increase in knowledge observed in modern medicine. However, in turn, the therapeutic
potential of evidence-based medicine has not
always been fully realized. Therefore, some
studies have been initiated to quantify the descriptive classification theory of TCM and
TPM/TIM (Ma et al., 2010; Lu et al., 2012;
Rezadoost etal., 2016). As in other traditional
medicine systems, TPM/ITM also classifies
the human body from signs and symptoms
into different classes or temperaments similar
to the theory of TCM (Ardekani etal., 2011).
The authors found a close relationship be
tween the main chemical compounds of medicinal plants and the temperaments mentioned
in traditional Iranian manuscripts. They were
able to assign hot and dry temperaments to
those plants containing phenolic compounds
as the main constituents, with the exception
of those containing tannins, which have cold
and dry temperaments. Plants containing essential oils were also identified as having hot
and dry temperaments, with the exception of
those whose essential oils contain mainly alcoholic constituents, which have cold and dry
temperaments. In the case of alkaloid-containing plants, either a cold and dry or a hot and
dry temperament was found, depending on
their individual alkaloid structure (Ardekani
etal., 2011).
Although several omics-based and also
non-omics-based research studies have already been conducted to describe some of
these temperaments in more detail, there is
a considerable need for further research activities to clarify the outstanding questions
regarding the theory of TCM and TPM/TIM
in this context. A study by Rezadoost etal.
(2016) compared the proteomic profiles of
two temperaments (hot–wet and cold–dry)
to further describe the molecular basis of
the TPM/TIM theory for classifying the
human body and possible molecular biomarkers proposed for these temperaments.
Interactions with Islamic Traditional
Medicine, Traditional Chinese
Medicine, Ayurveda, Kampo, and
Monastic Medicine
In general, Middle Eastern medicine was
strongly influenced by teachers from the Far
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