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106 Farsad Nadjafi and Mohammad Reza Kanani
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foenugraeca (L.) E.H.L. Krause, Telis foenum-graecum (L.) Kuntze, Trigonella ensifera
Trautv., T. graeca St.-Lag., T. haussknechtii
(Širj.) Vassilcz., T. jemenensis (Serp.) Sinskaya, T. rhodantha (Alef.) Vassilcz., T. tibet-
ana (Alef.) Vassilcz., Xiphostylis erectus Gasp.
Family: Fabaceae (Leguminosae).
Arabic name: H olbah.
Persian name: Shanbalileh.
English name: Fenugreek (Fig. 2.72).
Distribution
Africa: Algeria, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Libya,
Mali, Morocco, Mozambique, Sudan, Tanzania, Tunisia, Zimbabwe. Asia: Afghanistan,
Austria, Bangladesh, Caucasus, China, India,
Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon,
Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, Oman, Pakistan,
Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tajikistan, Transcaucasus, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan,
Yemen. Europe: Albania, Baltic States, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, France, Germany,
Greece (Aegean Islands), Hungary, Italy, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Spain, Switzerland,
Ukraine. Oceania and Australasia: Fiji.
Morphology
Annual herb, 30–80 cm. Taproot to 80 cm,
fibrous roots lateral. Stem erect, terete,
branched. Leaves 3-foliolate; stipules entire,
membranous, base adnate to petiole, apex
acute; petiole spreading, 6–15 mm; leaflets
narrowly obovate, ovate, to oblong-elliptic,
terminal equal to laterals, 15–40 mm × 4–15
mm, sparsely pubescent or glabrescent abaxially, glabrous adaxially, lateral veins 5 or 6
pairs, base cuneate, margin dentate in upper
half. Flowers sessile, axillary, solitary or in
pairs. Calyx 7–8 mm, villous. Corolla creamy
or pale yellow, base violet, 13–18 mm. Ovary
puberulent; ovules numerous. Legume long
conical, 7–12 cm × 0.4–0.5 cm, straight or
slightly curved, glabrescent, veins longitudinally reticulate, apex with long beak to
2 cm, distal suture thickened. Seeds 10–20,
brown, oblong-ovoid, 3–5 mm × 2–3 mm,
surface uneven (Bobrov et al., 1934–1964;
Rechinger, 1963–2001; Tutin et al., 1964;
Davis, 1965–1988).
Fig. 2.72. Trigonella foenum-graceum L. (By Yak,
CC BY-SA 3.0, https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Bockshornklee#/media/Datei:Junger_
Bockshornklee.jpg.)
Urtica urens L., Sp. Pl.: 984 (1753)
Synonyms: Urtica atlantica Blume, U. cuben-
sis Klotzsch ex Herder, U. minor Garsault,
U. minor Lam., U. monoica Gilib., U. ovalifolia
Stokes, U. parvula Blume, U. quadristipulata
Dulac, U. trianae Rusby.
Family: Urticaceae.
Arabic name: Qoras hareq.
Persian name: Gazanahe sag.
English name: Annual nettle, Nettle, Dog
nettle (Fig. 2.73).
Distribution
Africa: Algeria, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia,
Kenya, Lesotho, Libya, Morocco, Namibia,
Botany, Collection, and Cultivation 107
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elliptic, sometimes ovate or obovate, 1.2–6
cm × 0.6–3 cm, 5-veined, often subglabrous
except for sparse stinging hairs on both sur-
faces, base broadly cuneate or rounded, mar-
gin 6–11-dentate, apex obtuse-rounded;
cystoliths punctiform, distinct adaxially. In-
florescences containing proximal female
flowers and distal male flowers, spicate,
0.5–2.5 cm. Male flowers short pedicellate,
in bud c.1.2 mm; perianth lobes connate half
of length, puberulent. Female flowers: peri
anth lobes connate at base, dorsal-ventral
lobes ovate, equaling achene, often with 1
stinging hair on dorsal rib, sparsely setulose
along margin, lateral lobes ovate, c.5× as
small as others. Achene brownish-gray,
ovoid, compressed, 0.8 mm, verrucose, in-
vested by persistent perianth lobes (Bobrov
et al., 1934–1964; Rechinger, 1963–2001;
Tutin et al., 1964; Davis, 1965–1988; Sell
and Murrell, 2006).
-
3.0, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/6/61/Urtica_urens_002.JPG.)
Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania, Tunisia. Asia: China ,
Caucasus, Bahrain, Kuwait, Iran, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Oman, Qatar,
Saudi Arabia, Syria, Transcaucasus, Turkey,
Yemen. Europe: Albania, Austria, Baltic
States, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canary
Islands, Great Britain, Cyprus, Denmark
Greece (Aegean Islands), Hungary, Ireland,
Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine. Americas: Argentina, Bolivia,
Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru, USA. Oceania
and Australasia: Australia, New Zealand.
Morphology
Annual herb. Stems branched, 10–60 cm
tall, sparsely puberulent and somewhat
densely armed with stinging hairs; lower
internodes 4–7 cm, upper internodes 1–3 cm.
Stipules free, narrowly triangular, 1–2.5 mm,
ciliate; petiole 1–2.5 cm, puberulent, sparsely
armed with stinging hairs; leaf blade broadly
Valeriana officinalis L., Sp. Pl.: 31 (1753)
Synonyms: Astrephia chinensis Dufr., Valeria-
na alternifolia Bunge, V. alternifolia f. angusti-
folia (Kom.) Kitag., V. alternifolia f. verticillata
(Kom.) S.X. Li, V. alternifolia subsp. pseu-
docoreana Vorosch., V. alternifolia subsp.
stubendorfiana (Sumn.) Vorosch., V. alternifo-
lia subsp. stubendorfii (Kreyer ex Kom.) Vor-
osch., V. alternifolia var. angustifolia (Kom.)
S.H. Li, V. alternifolia var. stolonifera A.I. Bar-
anov & Skvortsov, V. altissima J.C. Mikan, V.
altissima J.C. Mikan ex Besser, V. angustifolia
Tausch ex Host, V. baltica Pleijel, V. chinensis
Kreyer, V. chinensis Kreyer ex Kom., V. coreana
Briq., V. coreana subsp. badzhalensis Vorosch.,
V. coreana subsp. leiocarpa (Kitag.) Vorosch.,
V. coreana subsp. pseudoumbrosa (Vorosch.)
Vorosch., V. coreana subsp. sachalinensis
(Hara) Vorosch., V. divaricata Huter, V. exal-
tata J.C. Mikan, V. exaltata J.C. Mikan ex
Pohl, V. fauriei Briq., V. fauriei f. coreana
(Briq.) H. Hara, V. fauriei subsp. badzhalensis
(Vorosch.) Vorosch., V. fauriei subsp. sa-
chalinensis (Hara) Vorosch., V. fauriei var.
dasycarpa H. Hara, V. fauriei var. fauriei,
V. fauriei var. leiocarpa (Kitag.) Kitag., V.
jacutica Sumn., V. leiocarpa Kitag., V. lucida
108 Farsad Nadjafi and Mohammad Reza Kanani
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Hort. Par., V. lucida Hort. Par. ex DC., V.
major Pall., V. multiceps Wallr., V. multiceps
var. dentata Wallr., V. multiceps var. incisa
Wallr., V. nipponica Nakai, V. nipponica Nakai
ex Kitag., V. officinalis f. pilosa Podp., V. offic-
inalis f. pubescens Podp., V. officinalis subsp.
baltica (Pleijel) Á. Löve & D. Löve, V. officina-
lis subsp. communis Schübl. & G. Martens,
V. officinalis subsp. dunensis P.D. Sell, V. offic-
inalis subsp. exaltata (J.C. Mikan ex Pohl)
Wirtg., V. officinalis subsp. exaltata (J.C. Mi-
kan) Soó, V. officinalis subsp. latifolia (Vahl)
Schübl. & G. Martens, V. officinalis subsp.
sarkayi (Soó) Á. Löve & D. Löve, V. officinalis
subsp. simplicifolia Ledeb., V. officinalis sub-
sp. vulgaris Celak., V. officinalis var. alternifo-
lia Ledeb., V. officinalis var. altissima (J. C .
Mikan ex Besser) W.D.J. Koch, V. officinalis
var. angustifolia Hayne, V. officinalis var. an-
gustifolia Miq., V. officinalis var. exaltata (J. C.
Mikan ex Pohl) Kostel., V. officinalis var. lat-
ifolia Briq., V. officinalis var. latifolia Miq.,
V. officinalis var. latifolia Vahl, V. officinalis
var. major Wimm. & Grab., V. officinalis var.
media W.D.J. Koch, V. officinalis var. officina-
lis, V. officinalis var. palustris Wibel, V. officinalis var. sarkanyi Soó, V. officinalis var.
sarkayi Soó, V. officinalis var. simplicifolia
Ledeb., V. officinalis var. vulgaris Kitt., V.
palustris Kreyer, V. palustris var. exaltata
(J.C. Mikan ex Pohl) Kreyer, V. palustris var.
integella Kreyer, V. palustris var. vulgaris
Kreyer, V. pinnata Gilib., V. provisa Kreyer, V.
pseudofficinalis C.Y. Cheng & H.B. Chen,
V. pseudoumbrosa Vorosch., V. pulchra Nakai,
V. sambucifolia Eichw., V. sambucifolia subsp.
sachalinensis Hara, V. sambucifolia var. dasy-
carpa (Hara) H. Hara, V. sambucifolia var.
fauriei (Briq.) H. Hara, V. sambucifolia var.
sachalinensis Hara, V. sinensis J.F. Gmel., V.
stubendorfiana Sumnev., V. stubendorfii
Kreyer, V. stubendorfii Kreyer ex Kom., V.
stubendorfii f. angustifolia Kom., V. stubendorfii f. verticillata Kom., V. stubendorfii sub-
sp. angustifolia Kom., V. stubendorfii subsp.
verticillata Kom., V. sylvestris Garsault, V.
sylvestris Groschke, V. tergemina Kreyer, V.
tianschanica Kreyer, V. tianschanica Kreyer
ex Hand.-Mazz., V. vulgaris Bubani, Veronica
officinalis var. altissima W.D.J. Koch.
Family: Caprifoliaceae.
Arabic name: Nārdin makhzani.
Persian name: Sonbolotib .
Common name: Valerian (Fig. 2.74).
Distribution
Asia: Caucasus, Iran, Transcaucasus, Turkey.
Europe: Albania, Austria, Baltic States, Bela-
rus, Bulgaria, Denmark, Estonia, Finland,
France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy,
Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russia,
Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine. Americas: USA.
Morphology
Plants up to 150 cm tall, infrequently stoloniferous. Rhizomes reduced; roots fascicled, clavate, 1.5–2.5 mm in diameter.
Stems hirsute or hispidulous, particularly at
nodes, rarely glabrous. Basal and lowermost
cauline leaves usually wilted at anthesis;
cauline leaves petiolate to sessile; petiole
0–8 cm; blade ovate to broadly ovate, 5–15 cm
Fig. 2.74. Valeriana officinalis L. (By H. Zell, CC
BY-SA 3.0, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/8/82/Valeriana_officinalis_001.JPG.)
Botany, Collection, and Cultivation 109
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× 3–8 cm, pinnatisect; segments 7–15, lanceolate or linear, glabrous or ± hispidulous,
base decurrent, margin entire or coarsely
serrate; terminal and lateral segments similar in shape and size. Inflorescence corymbiform, large and compact even in fruit, or
with 2 distinct, secondary lateral inflorescences; bracts leaflike below, small and linear-lanceolate otherwise; bracteoles elliptic-oblong, oblanceolate, or linear-lanceolate,
margin scarious-ciliate, apex awned. Corolla
purplish-red, pink, or white, funnelform,
4–6 mm; lobes elliptic. Stamens and style
strongly exserted. Achenes narrowly ovoid,
4–5 mm, both sides glabrous or pubescent
(Boissier, 1867–1888; Bobrov etal., 1934–
1964; Rechinger, 1963–2001; Tutin et al.,
1964; Davis, 1965–1988).
Veratrum album L., Sp. Pl.: 1044 (1753)
Synonyms: Helleborus albus (L.) Gueldenst.,
Melanthium album (L.) Thunb., M. bracteolare Desr., M. virens Thunb., Veratrum album
albicans Gaudin, V. album f. glabrescens
(Zapal.) Soó, V. album subsp. misae (Sirj.) Tz-
velev, V. album f. podolicum (Zapal.) Soó, V.
bosniacum Beck, V. croaticum (Beck) O. Loes.,
V. flavum (Griseb.) O. Loes., V. lobelianum f.
oppositifolium Cheshm., V. misae (Sirj.) O.
Loes., V. parviflorum Bong., V. polygamum
Gilib., V. viride Röhl.
Family: Melanthiaceae.
Arabic name: Khrbaq abyad.
Persian name: Khrbaqe sefid.
Common name: False helleborine, White
hellebore, European white hellebore, White
veratrum (Fig. 2.75).
Distribution
Asia: Transcaucasus, Turkey. Europe: Albania, Austria, Baltic States, Belarus, Finland,
France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Norway,
Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Spain,
Switzerland, Ukraine.
Fig. 2.75. Veratrum album L. (By Tigerente, CC
BY-SA 3.0, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/8/80/Veratrum_album_Dachstein.jpg.)
Morphology
Stems 50–175 cm. Cauline leaves glabrous
or subglabrous above, shortly pubescent
beneath especially on the veins, the lower
10–25 cm × 6–15 cm, elliptical to broadly el-
liptical, becoming shorter and narrower
above. Inflorescence a much-branched pan-
icle. Pedicels 2–3 mm. Flowers 15–25 mm in
diameter. Perianth segments 7–15 mm ×
3–6 mm, elliptical to lanceolate, white out-
side and greenish inside to greenish-white
or yellowish on both surfaces. Capsule
sparsely pubescent (Bobrov et al., 1934–
1964; Tutin etal., 1964; Davis, 1965–1988).
Viola odorata L., Sp. Pl.: 934 (1753)
Synonyms: Viola cyclophylla Gand., V. g onz a -
loi Sennen, V. gonzaloi var. semiglabra Sen-
nen, V. hirta var. odorata (L.) Fiori, V. hirta
subsp. odorata (L.) Fiori, V. martia Gilib., V.
martia Hegetschw., V. martii subsp. odorata
(L.) Schimp. & Spenn., V. odorata f. odorata,
110 Farsad Nadjafi and Mohammad Reza Kanani
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V. odorata subsp. rierolae Sennen, V. odorata
subsp. sarotina P. Fourn., V. parmensis Bailly,
V. spectabilis K. Richt., V. tenerrima Halácsy &
Braun, V. vilmoriniana Delacour & Mottet, V.
odorata proles brarcinonensis Sennen, V. od o rata subsp. texidoris Sennen, V. taynensis
Elisafenko.
Family: Violaceae.
Arabic name: Albanafsaji.
Persian name: Banafsheh.
English name: Sweet violet (Fig. 2.76).
Distribution
Africa: Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia. Asia:
Caucasus, China, India, Iran, Iraq, Japan,
Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Myanmar, Pakistan,
Syria, Tajikistan, Transcaucasus, Turkey,
Vietnam. Europe: Albania, Austria, Baltic
States, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canary
Islands, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, France,
Germany, Great Britain, Greece (Aegean Islands), Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia,
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine.
Americas: Argentina, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala,
Leeward Islands, Mexico, Panamá, Peru,
Puerto Rico, Trinidad and Tobago, USA,
Venezuela.
Morphology
Perennial plant 5–15 cm, with leaf rosette
and long, procumbent, rooting stolons.
Leaves orbicular-reniform, deeply cordate,
widest at about the middle; petiole long.
Stipules ovate, glabrous, or sparsely cibate,
shortly glandular-fimbriate. Bracts at or
above middle of peduncle. Flowers c.1–5 cm,
dark violet or white, fragrant. Sepals ovate,
obtuse. Spur c.6 mm, exceeding calycine appendages. Stigmatic beak vertical, its length
equaling diameter of style. Capsule pubescent (Bobrov etal., 1934–1964; Rechinger,
1963–2001; Tutin etal., 1964; Davis, 1965–
1988; Sell and Murrell, 2006).
Vitex agnus-castus L., Sp. Pl.: 638 (1753)
Synonyms: Agnus-castus alba Carrière, Agnus-
castus macrostachya Carrière, Agnus-castus
robusta (Lebas) Carrière, Agnus-castus vulgaris
Carrière, Vitex agnus Stokes, V. agnus-castus f.
caerulea (Rehder) Moldenke, V. agnus-castus
subsp. haussknechtii Bornm., V. agnus-castus
f. laciniosa (Ces.) Moldenke, V. haussknechtii
(Bornm.) Prain, V. hyb ri da Moldenke, V. inte-
gra Medik., V. latifolia Mill., V. lupinifolia
Salisb., V. pseudonegundo (Hausskn.) Hand.-
Mazz., V. robusta Lebas, V. verticillata Lam.
Family: Lamiaceae (Labiatae).
Arabic name: Fanjankosh.
Fig. 2.76. Viola odorata L. (By Fritz Geller-Grimm,
CC BY-SA 2.5, https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Viola_odorata_fg01.JPG.)
Persian name: Panjangosht.
English name: Chaste tree, Vitex, Abraham’s balm, Lilac chastetree, Monk’s pepper
(Fig. 2.77).
Distribution
Africa: Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia. Asia: Afghanistan, Bahrain, Caucasus,
Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Oman, Pakistan, Syria,
Tajikistan, Transcaucasus, Turkmenistan,
Turkey, Yemen. Europe: Albania, Bulgaria, Cyprus, France, Greece (Aegean Islands), Italy,
Spain, Ukraine. Americas: Brazil, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Honduras, Mexico, Peru,
Puerto Rico, USA.
Botany, Collection, and Cultivation 111
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C.Y. Cheng & M.J. Liu, Z. chinensis Spreng.,
Z. flexuosa Wall., Z. jujuba f. allochroa C.Y.
Cheng & M.J. Liu, Z. jujuba f. apyrena C.Y.
Cheng & M.J. Liu, Z. jujuba f. carnosicalycis
C.Y. Cheng & M.J. Liu, Z. jujuba f. hetero-
formis C.Y. Cheng & M.J. Liu, Z. jujuba f.
tortuosa C.Y. Cheng & M.J. Liu, Z. melanog-
ona Bojer, Z. natsme Siebold, Z. nitida
Roxb., Z. officinarum Medik., Z. sativa
Gaertn., Z. sinensis Lam., Z. soporifera
(Lour.) Duhamel, Z. sororia Schult., Z. spi-
nosa (Bunge) Hu ex F.H. Chen, Z. trinervia
Roth, Z. vulgaris Lam., Z. vulgaris var. spi-
nosa Bunge, Z. zizyphus (L.) H. Karst.,
Zizyphon jujubum (Mill.) St.-Lag.
Family: Rhamnaceae.
Fig. 2.77. Vitex agnus-castus L. (By Krzsysztof
Ziarnek, Kenraiz, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Vitex_
agnus-castus_kz2.jpg.)
Morphology
Fragrant plant, 1–6 m tall. Young twigs
with 4 obtuse angles, gray-puberulent.
Leaves petiolate, with 5–7 stipitate leaflets;
leaflets 1.5–10 cm, linear-lanceolate,
acuminate, entire, whitish-tomentose beneath, glabrous above. Calyx and outside of
corolla tomentose. Corolla 8–10 mm, blue
or pink. Drupe globose, reddish-black,
slightly longer than calyx (Engler and
Prantl, 1897–1915; Rechinger, 1963–2001;
Davis, 1965–1988).
Ziziphus jujuba Miller, Gard. Dict. ed. 8:
no. 1 (1768)
Synonyms: Girtanneria jujuba (Mill.) Neck.,
Jububa mediterranea Bubani, Mansana arborea J.F. Gmel., Paliurus lucidus Carrière,
Rhamnus circumcissa Russell ex Wall., R. lucida Salisb., R. mauritiana Soy.-Will., R. soporifera Lour., R. vulgaris Pers., R. zizyphus
L., Ziziphus acidojujuba C.Y. Cheng & M.J.
Liu, Z. acidojujuba f. granulata C.Y. Cheng &
M.J. Liu, Z. acidojujuba f. infecunda C.Y. Cheng
& M.J. Liu, Z. acidojujuba f. trachysperma
Arabic name: Oʿnāb.
Persian name: Oʿnāb.
English name: Jujube, Jujuba, Chinese date
(Fig. 2.78).
Distribution
Africa: Algeria, Burkina Faso, Cameroon,
Tunisia, Morocco, Laos, Libya. Asia: Af-
ghanistan, China, Cyprus, India, Iran, Iraq,
Japan, Kazakhstan, Korea, Kyrgyzstan,
Lebanon, Maldives, Mongolia, Pakistan,
Syria, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uz-
bekistan. Europe: Bulgaria, France, Greece,
Italy, Romania, Spain. Americas: Cuba, Do-
minican Republic, Honduras, Jamaica, USA,
Venezuela.
Morphology
Small tree, rarely shrub, deciduous, to 10 m
tall, spinose or unarmed. Bark brown or gray-
brown, with long reduced branches, without
buds; branchlets (new branches) purple-red
or gray-brown, flexuose, smooth, with 2 stipu-
lar spines or not; long spines erect, to 3 cm,
stout; short spines recurved, developed from
old branches; annual branchlets pendulous,
green, solitary or 2–7-fascicled on short
shoots. Stipular spines slender, caducous;
petiole 1–6 mm, or to 1 cm on long shoots,
glabrous or sparsely puberulent; leaf blade
112 Farsad Nadjafi and Mohammad Reza Kanani
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Cultivation Methods of Some
Important Medicinal and Aromatic
Plants of Iran
Saffron (Crocus sativus)
Crocus sativus L. is a perennial stemless herb,
commonly known as saffron. The dried stigmas constitute the saffron of commerce. As
cultivation of this species requires intensive
labor and time, and the stigmas constitute a
small part of the plant, it is the most expensive spice in the world. Cultivation of this
expensive traditional spice is distributed
from the Mediterranean region to Europe as
well as to Asia. Iran is the world’s principal
producer and exporter of saffron (85% of
the worldwide saffron production). Due to
very specific climate requirements, saffron
grows in only a few countries. The main producer countries are Iran with 67,297 ha and
a production amount of 239 t in 2010 and
then India with 3200 ha cultivation area
CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/
index.php?curid=69284063.)
and a production amount of 12.5 t. The main
producers in Europe are Greece with a cultivation area of 1,750 ha and total production
of 7 t (in 2010) and Spain with 165 ha with a
abaxially pale green, adaxially dark green,
ovate, ovate-elliptic, or elliptic-oblong, 3–7
cm × 1.5–4 cm, papery, abaxially ± puberulent on major veins or glabrous, adaxially
glabrous, 3-veined from base, base slightly
asymmetric, subrounded, margin crenate-serrate, apex obtuse or rounded, rarely
acute, mucronulate. Flowers yellow-green,
bisexual, 5-merous, glabrous, solitary or 2–8
crowded in axillary cymes, shortly pedunculate. Pedicel 2–3 mm. Sepals ovate-triangular,
adaxially distinctly keeled. Petals obovate,
about as long as stamens, clawed at base.
Disk orbicular, thick, fleshy, 5-lobed. Ovary
basally slightly immersed in disk; style
2-cleft to half. Drupe red at maturity, turning red-purple, oblong or narrowly ovoid,
2–3.5 cm, (0.5–)1.5–2 cm in diameter; mesocarp fleshy, thick, sweet- or sour-tasting;
stone acute or obtuse at both ends, 2loculed, 1- or 2-seeded; fruiting pedicel
2–5 mm or longer. Seeds compressed-orbicular,
c.1 cm × 0.8 cm (Rechinger, 1963–2001;
Davis, 1965–1988).
total production of 3.2 t. Between countries,
Spain had the highest average yield per hec-
tare because of good agricultural practices
while the average yield in Iran was 3.5 kg/ha
(UNIDO, 2014). More than 96% of saffron
in Iran is being produced in Razavi Khorasan
and South Khorasan provinces. Saffron is
valued for its golden coloring, flavoring, and
aromatizing, but recently it is also being
considered by the pharmaceutical industry
for its antidepressant and anti-Alzheimer
activities (UNIDO, 2014).
Although about 150 volatile and nonvolatile compounds have been detected in
saffron stigmas, only less than 50 constitu
ents have been identified so far (Winterhalter
and Straubinger, 2000). Terpenes, terpene
alcohols, and their esters represent the main
components in volatile oil, among which safranal is the major component. Various crocins, crocetin, picrocrocin, and flavonoids like
quercetin and kaempferol are the main nonvolatile compounds (Liakopoulou-Kyriakides
and Kyriakidis, 2002). The characteristic
-
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color of saffron is due to the presence of crocins, which are glucosyl esters of crocetin.
The bitter taste of the spice is related to
picrocrocin, a glycoside of safranal (Kanakis
etal., 2004).
Saffron is an autumnal flowering geophite characterized by a long summer rest in
which the plant survives periods of drought
by means of corms. Its biological cycle starts
with its above-ground vegetative growth at
the first autumn rains with the emission of
leaves and flowers almost immediately and
ends with the production of replacement
corms in about 220 days. Unlike many other
species of the Crocus genus that flower in the
winter–spring period, in saffron flowering
can occur from mid-October to the end of November, essentially depending on the climatic
conditions. It generally starts from 60 to
90 days after planting, mainly depending on
sowing time, but snowy and cold periods may
retard flowering. Saffron prefers direct sun
exposure, even though in India it is cultivated
together with almond trees. According to
Fernández (2004) and Mollafilabi (2004), the
best climatic conditions for high yields are
rainfall in the autumn, warm summers, and
mild winters. Saffron grows on a wide range
of soils. Skrubis (1990) reported that the
best yields are achieved on well-drained claycalcareous and deep soil. Fernández (2004)
suggests that clay is a good soil for saffron.
Saffron is cultivated in a wide range of
environments with mild to dry climates.
This plant is propagated by corm and the
best cultivation time is in summer (end of
July) when the plant is in dormancy period
(Gresta et al., 2008a). Before planting, the
soil should be completely cleared of weeds,
ploughed at a depth of 25–30 cm, and left to
rest from a few weeks to the entire winter.
The application of about 20–30 t of organic
manure per hectare is the most common fer
tilization practice all over the world
(Koockeki, 2004). The best corm size is
8–10 g and the best plant density is 19–20 t
of corms per hectare (Koocheki etal., 2011).
Koocheki et al. (2011) reported that best
planting depth is 15 cm. They mentioned
that the best planting method is row cropping with between- and inter-row distances
of 15 and 20 cm, respectively (Koocheki
etal., 2009). Perennial crop techniques have
highly variable durations from place to place:
from 3–4 years in Spain, 6–8 years in India
and Greece, and up to 12 years in Morocco
(Ait-Oubahou and El-Otmani, 1999). With
the aging of the saffron field, generally after
4–5 years, spice production declines because
of increasing competition for water and nutrients, fungal infection due to overcrowding (Sampathu etal., 1984), and the reduced
size and reproduction capability of corms. In
a 10-year experiment, Grilli Caiola (2005)
observed that corms left in the soil without
management techniques continue produ
cing daughter corms for up to 3–5 years but
afterwards they degenerate and are no
longer able to reproduce vegetatively. Water
requirements of saffron are low and can be
satisfied by the scarce rainfall when cultivated in semiarid conditions. Researches in
Iran (Koocheki, 2004) showed that this
plant needs up to 3000 m
3
of irrigation per
year. The most crucial moment for irrigation
is after summer to awaken the corms but
this coincides with autumn rains, so, excepting a severe drought season, this may be
considered unnecessary. Weeds are probably
the main problem for saffron, since it is unable to compete, above all because of its very
low height. Nevertheless, due to the short
time between the corm planting and flowering, severe weed problems start the following spring in perennial cultivation. From
flowering, weeds can be left to grow until
May and then cut without damaging the
crop when the saffron leaves wither. Weeds
are controlled mostly by hand. Gathering
saffron flowers requires care and intensive
manual labor: the flowers grow only a few
centimeters above ground and, depending
on vegetative activity, might be surrounded
by several leaves that must not be damaged
otherwise daughter corms will not be produced. Flowers are harvested manually.
About 350–450 labor-hours are needed to
harvest 1 kg of the spice (Gresta et al.,
2008b) (Fig. 2.79).
The saffron flower is highly ephemeral;
given its very short life, it should be picked
the same day of flowering and placed in baskets. The best practice is to pick the flower
early in the morning each day, when the
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corolla is still closed, thereby preventing the
stigmas from losing color and quality, avoiding any sudden deterioration by wind or rain
(Zanzucchi, 1987; Tammaro, 1990) and allowing a ready separation into their constituent parts. After harvest, stigmas must
be separated from the petals and stamen as
soon as possible by opening the corolla and
cutting the stigmas with the fingers below
the branching where the style changes color
(from red to yellow). Drying and storage
methods are very important because a poor
undertaking of this procedure can completely compromise qualitative features of
saffron (Carmona etal., 2005). According to
the ISO norm, the moisture content may
range between 10 and 12% w/w (ISO-36322:2003, 2003). The best drying temperature
is between 35 and 40°C (Gresta et al ., 2008b).
Generally, 1 ha of saffron may produce
10–15 kg of dried stigmas, but it can range
widely, depending on the above mentioned
factors, from 2 to 30 kg. In Iran, the average
yield of saffron is around 5.4 kg/ha (Behzad
et al., 1992). In New Zealand, McGimpsey
etal. (1997) reached yields of 24 kg/ha for
dried stigmas. The worst enemies of saffron
are rodents and fungi (Tammaro, 1990; Goliaris, 1999). Moles, rats, and rabbits can
easily damage corms or eat leaves. Fungal attacks are mostly promoted by humid conditions. To avoid fungal infection, the best
practices are crop rotation along with the removal and burning of infected plants.
Cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.)
Cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) is an important medicinal plant in Iran that has a long
history of cultivation in the country. Cumin
seeds are known for their spicy aroma and
medicinal use (Hassanzadehdelouei et al.,
2013). This plant is cultivated in vast area in
Iran, mostly in dryland agricultural systems.
The area under cultivation and production
of this plant in Iran have grown significantly
in recent years. Today, the cultivation area is
near 18,000 ha, with Razavi Khorasan Province (Fig. 2.80) accounting for more than
12,000 ha (Sefidkon, 2021).
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This species is a small bushy plant belonging to the Apiaceae family with a height
of 20–30 cm and a greenish color at early stage
and a grayish color at maturity (Fig. 2.81).
The fruits are light brown or grayish in color
and ovate or fusiform in shape (Hussein
and Batra, 1998). The main producers of
this plant are India, Iran, Syria, Egypt, and
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