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116 Farsad Nadjafi and Mohammad Reza Kanani
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production. High humidity, cloudy weather,
too much dew, and unseasonal rain after
flowering, on the other hand, are detrimental to yield (Khosh-Khui and Bonyanpour, 201 0).
Seeds are used for cultivation. The plant
can be cultivated in temperate regions in autumn and in cold regions in spring. November is a good time for autumn sowing, while
spring planting is done in March. Autumn
planting usually results to higher seed yield
and essential oil content. The superiority of
autumn planting was attributed to a better
establishment of plants by using autumn
precipitations and also lower extent of diseases (Rezvani Moghaddam et al., 2014).
Between 12 and 15 kg of high-quality seeds
are required per hectare. Seed depth depending on soil texture is between 1.5 and 2 cm,
and seeds are directly planted in the ground.
Seeds should be soaked in water for 24–36 h
to enhance the growing power (Faravani,
2004). Alam (2007) suggested that the use
of bioinoculant Azospirillum or Azotobactor
and seed priming for 8 h followed by shade
(By Farsad Nadjafi.)
drying before sowing improves germination;
whereas Lal etal. (2014) suggested that seed
Turkey; but it is also cultivated in Morocco,
South Russia, Japan, Indonesia, Algeria,
Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Cyprus, Lebanon,
Malta, Spain and on a small scale in Central
America (Tuncturk and Tuncturk, 2006).
Cumin fruits contain fatty oil (approximately 10% w/w), essential oil (1–5% w/w),
protein, cellulose, sugar, and minerals (Li
and Jiang, 2004). Volatile oil contains monoterpene hydrocarbons (α-pinene, β-pinene,
ρ-cymene, and γ-terpinene) and various
oxygenated monoterpenes (1,8-cineole,
cuminaldehyde, cuminyl alcohol, and safranal) (Gachkar et al., 2007; Rebey e tal., 2012).
The main compound of cumin oil is cumin
aldehyde (p-isopropyl benzaldehyde) with
its content varying, depending on the individual extraction method (Behera et al.,
2004) and geographic origin, between less
than 20% w/w and more than 40% w/w
(Lawrence, 1992).
Cumin needs a Mediterranean climate
with long and sunny days. The optimum
growth temperature ranges between 25
and 30°C. The plants require a moderately
cool and dry climate for good growth and
treatment with Bavistin (2.5 g/kg) and
Trichoderma viride (4 g/kg) and drying in
shade in an airtight container for some
hours before sowing improves germination
percentage. It was also found that application of seed treatment reduces the chances
of disease attacks. The control of wilt and
cumin blight disease can be done by the seed
treatment with Trichoderma asperellum and
Bavistin (Trivedi etal., 2019). The soil condition also plays a significant role in productivity of the crop. The most suitable soil
for cumin cultivation is sandy to loamy soil
with proper drainage, adequate aeration,
and high oxygen availability. The preferred
pH range of soil is 6.8 to 8.3 (Lal, 2018).
Cumin seedlings are highly susceptible to
salinity. The land required for cumin should
be leveled and well pulverized. The land
should be well prepared for better germination of seeds and growth of plants. A total of
three or four ploughings is required. The first
ploughing should be done by a soil-turning
plough followed by two or three ploughing
with a harrow to bring the soil to a fine tilth.
At the time of sowing there should be good
Botany, Collection, and Cultivation 117
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moisture in the soil for better germination
of the seeds (Lal etal., 2014).
The best cultivation method of cumin is
the line sowing method in shallow furrows at
a spacing of 20 to 25 cm (Kumar et al., 2021).
After sowing, the first operation is to
provide moisture to the soil for proper germination of seeds. The water requirement is
335 mm, throughout the crop cycle (Khajehpour, 1986). Irrigation should begin immediately after sowing and continue at 8- to
10-day intervals. The first irrigation should
not be too heavy; otherwise, it would result
in uneven distribution of germination
(plants). The emergence of seedlings starts
after the second irrigation, which is given at
10 days after the first irrigation, although, if
the temperature at daytime is high or there
is a dry spell, an additional irrigation may be
required after 4 to 5 days for complete germination. Later, based on the individual
weather conditions and soil type, the frequency of irrigation should be kept between
20 and 30 days. It was found that irrigation
plays a crucial role at the time of flowering
to seed-filling stage (Karimi, 1989). Hence,
proper irrigation is to be given during this
time period. The final irrigation should be
slightly heavy at the time of seed formation
to supply moisture at maturity stage.
The irrigation management is important for proper and uniform germination. Irrigation management using sprinklers, specifically in undulating areas of western
Rajasthan (India), has played a significant
role in increasing yield and quality (Ravindran etal., 2006; Sundria etal., 2014). Introducing modern methods of irrigation such as
micro irrigation, drip systems, and sprinkler
systems improves the water use efficiency
and saves water for healthy crop production.
The optimal nutrient requirement
should be met by applying the appropriate
amount of fertilizers. During land preparation, application of farmyard manure at
1520 t/ha should be given as basal dose.
Thereafter, the recommended fertilizer dose
per hectare is 30 kg of nitrogen (N) and
20 kg of phosphorus (P) (P
2003). N can be applied in single dose at
) (Ehteramian,
2O5
30 days after sowing (DAS) or in two equivalent doses at 30 and 60 DAS (Hornok, 1992).
It was found that the split applications of
fertilizers as per recommendations enhanced the nutrient use efficiency with increased yield level (Ravindran etal., 2006).
After, irrigation and fertilization, weeding plays an important role in increasing the
productivity. Therefore, proper weeding
should be done at right time. The first weeding and hoeing should be performed 30 to
40 DAS or when the plants have reached a
height of 4–5 cm. If weeds reappear, another
one or two hoeings and weedings will aid in
better crop growth (Kumar etal., 2021).
Cumin is sensitive to diseases like wilt,
powdery mildew, and blight. Fusarium wilt
is a seed- or soil-borne disease; it needs specific soil temperatures for epidemics to develop. It can reduce yield by up to 80% (Dar
et al., 2019). On the other hand, powdery
mildew disease can cause severe yield losses
in early development stage due to poor seed
formation and, at a later stage, it can cause
discolored tiny seeds. The blight disease appears as brownish spots on leaves and stems.
Generally, the disease is more susceptible to
cloudy weather and after flowering stage. A
seed treatment by Captan at 2 g/kg of seed
can be effective in controlling these diseases.
Spraying the plants twice with zineb at
300 g/100 l of water is also effective in controlling this disease.
Along with disease, insect attack also
hampers the productivity of cumin crop.
Aphid (Myzus persicae) is an important insect, which attacks mostly at flowering
stage. This insect feeds on plant sap from
tender parts and flowers. The plant becomes
yellowish in color and formation of seed is
reduced, the quality of the produce is also
degraded as well. Aphid can be controlled by
spraying Rogor at 1 ml/l of water. Other
major pests include mites, which regularly
invade crops and feed mostly on young
leaves; the infestation is more intense on
young inflorescences. Disease and pest management by an integrated approach using
both bioagents and pesticides is effective in
management of wilt, blight, powdery mildew, and aphids that cause the most devastating biotic stresses in cumin crop (Israel
and Lodha, 2004; Khare etal., 2014). For the
future, new varieties with multiple resistances
118 Farsad Nadjafi and Mohammad Reza Kanani
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to various diseases and pests such as wilt,
blight, powdery mildew, and aphids need to
be developed.
The crop is harvested when it turns yellow, leaves fall down, and seeds turn light
grayish-brown. The cumin crop matures in
90–140 days (Balandari, 1994). The plants
are harvested with hand tools such as sickles.
However, attempts have been made in recent years to modify available harvesters for
this purpose (Rahimi, 1993). After harvest
ing, threshing is done by threshers or manually. After harvesting and threshing, cumin
seeds are dried in the sun up to a moisture
level of 8.5–9% w/w. Seed yields range from
800 to 1000 kg/ha, depending on the individual variety, agro-management, and ecological conditions (Kumar etal., 2021).
Damask rose (Rosa × damascena Mill.)
The genus Rosa, belonging to the Rosaceae
family, includes more than 200 species and
18,000 cultivars (Gudin, 2000). One of the
most important Rosa species is damask rose
(Rosa × damascena Mill.), a deciduous shrub
growing to 2.2 m tall that has a barbed stem,
pinnate leaves with five leaflets, and fragrant pink to light red flowers. This shrub is
probably a hybrid from R. gallica L. and
R. moschata Herrm. Damask rose is one of
the most important medicinal, aromatic,
and ornamental plants, cultivated not only
for its characteristic fragrance but also for
its medicinal properties in many areas of the
world such as Bulgaria, Turkey, India, and
Iran (Tabaei-Aghdaei et al., 2007; Yousefi
et al., 2009). Damask rose is used for the
production of the hydrodistilled essential
rose oil, rose water, rose concrete, and absolute, which are extremely valuable and
important raw materials for the perfume,
cosmetics, and flavor industries (Ayci etal.,
2005). The main producers of rose oil are
Bulgaria, Turkey, Iran, and India (Rusanov
etal., 2009). In addition to its use in the flavor and fragrance industries, several other
important pharmaceutical properties of damask rose oil have been reported such as antiHIV (Mahmood et al., 1996), antibacterial
(Basim and Basim, 2003), antioxidant
(Achuthan etal., 2003; Ozkan etal., 2004),
anticancer (Ren et al., 2003), and laxative
(Gholamhoseinian etal., 2010) activities. In
Iran, different genotypes of this plant occur
in nature (Tabaei Aghdaei etal., 2003) and
are widely distributed at an altutude of 300
to 3500 m above sea level (Tabaei Aghdaei
et al., 2005). The various genotypes differ
greatly in terms of flower yield (Tabaei Aghdaei and Rezaei, 2002), essential oil content
and composition (Tabaei Aghdaei et al., 2003),
propagation and rooting (Tabaei Aghdaei
and Rezaei, 2000), morphology, phenology,
and resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses
(Tabaei Aghdaei and Babaei, 2001).
Iran, along with Turkey and Bulgaria,
are largest producers of damask roses in the
world. The area under cultivation was 18,000
ha in 2016. More than 85% of the cultivation
area is located in Fars, Kerman, Isfahan, and
East Azerbaijan provinces (Salehi Sardoei,
2022). The livelihood of many farmers in
these regions is entirely related to cultivation
and processing of this crop (Fig. 2.82). Iran
has been mentioned as one of the countries
of origin, and cultivation as well as consumption of R. × damascena has a long history in
the country (Rusanov etal., 2009). A considerable part of R. × damascena cultivation and
suitable areas for the development of cultivation are located in semiarid and cool areas of
Iran, including the provinces of Kurdistan,
East Azerbaijan, and Zanjan.
Due to the work-intensive production
of rose oil and the low oil content of rose
flowers, rose oil is considered one of the
most expensive essential oils; nevertheless,
global demand for high-quality rose oil is expected to increase in the near future (Probir
and Rakesh, 2013). More than 400 volatile
compounds have been identified in the floral
scent of various rose cultivars until now,
which can be classified into five major chemical groups: hydrocarbons, alcohols, esters,
aromatic ethers, and some others (including
aldehydes, rose oxides, and norisoprenes)
(Lavid etal., 2002). Citronellol, nonadecane,
geraniol, ethanol, heneicosane, nerol, and
1-nonadecene are reported as the major
constituents of R. × damascena essential
oil (Ozel etal., 2006; Verma etal., 2011). In
Botany, Collection, and Cultivation 119
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(By Farsad Nadjafi.)
addition, literature indicates that environmental factors such as annual rainfall, temperature, humidity, light, soil, pruning,
nutrient supply, harvesting time (Prakasa
Rao etal., 1995; Sangwan etal., 2001; Mirali
etal., 2012; Probir and Rakesh, 2013), years,
and cultivars (Bayrak and Akgül, 1994) have
significant effects on rose oil quality. Furthermore, flower ontogeny and growing site
(Verma etal., 2011), flower stages, flower
parts, harvesting date and fermentation
period (Weiss, 1997; Baydar and Baydar,
2005; Verma etal., 2011), extraction techniques (Ozel etal., 2006), storing and drying
treatments (Koksal et al., 2015), and pressure and temperature during distillation
(Kiran et al., 2002) can affect the oil content
and composition. For example, Kiran etal.
(2002) reported that the monoterpene hydrocarbons and esters were found to be in
traces, and stearoptene content was found
to be higher in the oil distilled under high
pressure, as compared to rose oil produced
under atmospheric pressure. Verma et al.
(2011) showed that oil content and composition can be different among damask rose
cultivars. Yousefi and Jaimand (2018) reported that the average essential oil yield of
the studied damask rose landraces in Iran is
about 0.01% w/w and attributed this finding
in particular to the drier environmental conditions. The individual extraction method
also affects oil yield and oil components.
Lawrence (1991), for example, stated found
that the yield was about ten times higher
with solvent extraction than with steam distillation. The main objective of damask rose
cultivation in many countries such as Turkey, Bulgaria, India, and France is to extract
the essential oil from the flower (Babu etal.,
2002); in this context, the breeding of new
rose varieties with higher oil yield and optimal composition is of particular importance.
In general, the main components of rose oil
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are the most important parameters that
determine the quality of the product; therefore, the attention toward development of
essential oil quantity and quality can be considered an important objective for improving essential oil yield of this species. The
percentage of major components is one of
the important parameters that determines
the quality of rose oil (Boelens and Boelens,
1997). Good-quality rose oil should have a
higher amount of monoterpene alcohols and
a lower proportion of alkanes (Baser, 1992).
Nowadays, use of rose oil in pharmaceutical industries is steadily increasing. The
content and relative compositions of the
major components are the key parameters
to determining the quality of rose oil (Nikolov
etal., 1977), which is chiefly governed by the
genotype, ecological and agronomical factors. Nevertheless, R. × damascena is adapted
to a wide range of environmental conditions.
In the main damask rose-growing region (Kazanlik) of Bulgaria, an average spring
temperature of 5–15°C is considered as optimum (Oyen and Dung, 1999). If low nighttime temperature of 10–12°C prevails during flowering stage, the oil synthesis reduces
considerably. However, a low temperature
during two weeks before flowering enhances
the quality and quantity of R. × damascena
flowers. The ideal temperature for growing
of most of the roses is 19–27°C. Weiss
(1997) found that a longer period in spring
with an average temperature of 5–15°C en
sures a large number of flowers per plant
with a high oil content.
Low light intensity with low temperature and 88% relative humidity can increase
the R. × damascena flower yield and its quan-
tity and quality of essential oil (Misra etal.,
2002). During spring and early summer,
70% humidity is optimum for good harvest
of damask rose. Roses do well in slightly
acidic to slightly alkaline soils with a pH between 6.0 and 7.5, whereas an acidic soil inhibits plant growth and reduces flower yield,
probably due to an imbalance of micronutrients. Brichet (2003) reported that rose
plant is sensitive to saline and alkaline soil.
Although R. × damascena does not like waterlogging, porous soils are generally unsuitable in low-rainfall areas. Poorly drained
soils may lead to root diseases and nutrient
deficiencies (Karlik etal., 2003).
Rose plants can be propagated by either
the sexual method or the vegetative method.
Seed is generally used for propagation of the
species, new cultivars, and for production of
rootstocks (Hornok, 1992). The perfumery
and cosmetics industries are considerate to
procure rose oil of consistent quality. Vege
tative propagation, therefore, is the most
vital and sole method to produce true-to
type planting material. That is why R. × dam-
ascena is mostly vegetatively propagated, to
produce consistent-quality essential oil.
Generally, the damask rose is propagated by
stem cutting, budding, and grafting (Hudson etal., 2002). Stem cutting is the easy
method for rose multiplication (Anderson
and Woods, 1999). The establishment and
growth rate of the cutting depend upon
many factors like season of cutting, age and
portion of the branch, growth media, moisture, and nutrient status (Khan etal., 2006).
About 20–25 cm long and 0.75–1.25 cm
thick stem cuttings are prepared from
1-year-old stems, which begin to lignify. In
India, the ideal time of deriving the cutting
is November–December. Root initiation
starts after 3 months of planting of cutting,
and the sprouted cuttings are ready for
transplant into the main field in about
9–12 months. The prevailing environmental
conditions like light, temperature, and relative humidity play a vital role for rooting and
subsequent growth and development of cuttings. Bredmose etal. (2004) reported that a
temperature of 24.6°C is optimal to enhance
the root growth of cuttings.
Damask rose is an exhaustive crop and
requires abundant plant nutrients. In Bulgaria, it was estimated that 64 kg of N,
8.7 kg of P, and 36 kg of potassium (K) are
annually applied per hectare on rose fields
and the harvested flowers contain about 3%
w/w N, 0.34% w/w P, and 1% w/w K (Koseva,
1978). Today, it is well known that quantity
of flowers and oil yield of roses are closely
correlated with the NPK levels in the leaf at
bud development stage (Orlova, 1984). A good
crop requires 200 kg N/ha, which is applied
in two equal doses particularly in saline
alkaline soil (Srivastava, 1975). Generally,
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N is applied in two equal doses, half at the time
of pruning and the other half 15 days later.
In Kashmir Valley, in India, application
of 200 kg N, 100 kg P2O5, and 50 kg K2O per
hectare and year has been found to provide
high flower production in damask rose
(Jhon et al., 1992). Jhon etal. (1992) also
found maximum shoot length with N at 200
kg/ha over 100 kg/ha. Increase in the length
of shoots due to higher dose of N and P application has also been reported in R. × dam-
ascena var. trigentipetala (Tajuddin et al.,
1986). Khoshgoftarmanesh et al. (2008)
reported that micronutrient treatments
reduced mildew infection in rose plants.
Various effects of micronutrients on diseases and pests have also been reported
(Marschner, 1995). Zinc plays an important
role in enhancing tolerance of rose cultivars
to the biotic stress of mildew infection (Khoshgoftarmanesh etal., 2008).
Adequate water supply is essential
throughout the vegetative and flowering
periods of R. × damascena cultivation. In
total, 10–12 irrigations are required for R. ×
damascena in a year. During the rainy season, it may not be necessary to irrigate the
plants. However, frequency of irrigation
during summer may be once weekly, and in
winter it may be once fortnightly. Irrigation
just after pruning is essential. Drip irrigation is most effective. Sprinkler irrigation is
also efficient in terms of water use efficiency, but it encourages the infection by
leaf diseases (Porter etal., 1987).
Pruning seems to affect both morphological as well as yield parameters in R. ×
damascena (Paul etal., 1995). Annual pruning is essential to attain proper shape of
bushes and promote branches. In Bulgaria,
light to moderate pruning increased the
flower yield and flower oil content, whereas
heavy pruning reduced both (Astadzhov
etal., 1986). Nevertheless, Hassanein (2010)
reported that light and medium pruning
were better than the heavy pruning in terms
of petal weight and oil content, respectively.
Although pruning time is mainly governed
by the climate of the place, pruning of R. ×
damascena is usually done from October to
January in different regions of India. The
pruned plants take 70–90 days to flower
after pruning. Time of flowering can be adjusted through date of pruning. However,
Saffari etal. (2004) reported that the time of
pruning did not affect the petal oil content.
Pruning at the beginning of autumn improved flower quality and essential oil content (Hassanein, 2010). Damask roses are
generally pruned annually. Astadzhov etal.
(1986) reported that pruning once every
3 years is acceptable in terms of cost and
flower yield. This cultural practice is useful in
removing photosynthetic old parts and re
generates new healthy photosynthetic parts,
subsequently increasing flower production.
R. × damascena is a deciduous shrub
bearing a fewer number of leaves and
branches during the initial 2 or 3 years. Thus,
it faces severe weed infestation throughout
the year. R. × damascena is more vulnerable
to competition by weeds during the initial
period of establishment of rooted stem cuttings in the field.
As mentioned before, the common way
of propagation of damask rose is stem cutting. This method is very slow and timeconsuming, and usually associated with various problems, such as limitation of stock
plant and prolonged nursery stage (Skirvin
etal., 1990). In this context, tissue culture is
employed for achieving faster rates of multiplication (Pati etal., 2001; Kapchina-Toteva
et al., 2002). The tissue culture techniques
for rapid multiplication have often resulted
in superior-quality planting material (Billir,
1999). Different features of tissue culture
propagation systems for R. × damascena have
been described by several researchers (Jabbarzadeh and Khosh-Khui, 2005; Nikbakht
etal., 2005).
Flowering is the economic part of R. ×
damascena. The harvest period is short and
depends on the prevailing weather conditions. In a cool and cloudy spring, it may
continue for about 1 month, while in hot
seasons it may last only for 16–20 days
(Perry, 1925). The flowering period depends
directly on the climatic conditions, but is
usually completed after 20–25 days. In India,
the main flowering season in the northern
plains takes place during March and April,
while in the hills it starts a little later in April
and May. The ideal stage of harvesting is
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blossoming stage. Lawrence (1991) reports
that the oil content in the flower is higher
when the petals start to swell and two or
three petals begin to open.
The flower harvesting should be started
before dawn and should be stopped when the
sun dries the dew on the flower. The oil content is significantly lower if the flowers are
picked after 9 a.m. (Igolen, 1966). High temperature during harvest reduces the oil content of flowers (Baydar and Baydar, 2005)
due to evaporation of essential oil from the
trichomes of the petals (Weiss, 1997). The
rose petals generally contain very little essential oil compared to other essential oil crops.
One kilogram of rose oil can be obtained from
about 3000 kg of rose petals (Baser, 1992), so
oil content is only about 0.03% w/w. In the
beginning stage of harvest, 4000 kg of flowers
are required to obtain 1 kg of oil (Garnero and
Buil, 1976). Oil composition varies to a large
extent over the flowering stages, which is due
to the different photosynthesic rates of various parts of the plants (Weiss, 1997). Mihailova etal. (1997) have also reported that
the oil composition varies according to the
flowering stages, flower parts, and the harvesting periods. The stage at which flowers
are picked is not only an important factor for
the oil yield but also for the quality of the oil.
The results of some studies (Misra et al.,
2002; Baydar and Baydar, 2005) show that
environmental conditions affect the quantity
and quality of flowers and essential oil. Vari
ations in yield and quality of essential oil may
be due to different harvesting and distillation
techniques (Bayrak and Akgül, 1994). It was
also reported that the effect of storage temperature between 0 and 3°C on oil content
was not significant, whereas the effect of
storage duration was significant (Kazaz etal.,
2009). Kazaz et al. (2009) reported that the
highest essential oil content (0.043% w/w)
was obtained from petals distilled immediately after harvest, while the lowest oil content (0.022% w/w) was obtained from petals
stored for 28 days. Although flower yield
depends on genetic and climatic factors,
agronomic management is the key factor in
determining flower yield. There is a direct
correlation between the level of crop management and yield.
The average annual flower yield in Bulgaria, Iran, and India is 2000–3000 kg/ha; in
Turkey, 2000–2500 kg/ha; and in Russia,
1500–2000 kg/ha. However, the yields are
not directly comparable as different cultivars are involved. The improved cultivars of
damask rose developed at the Institute of
Himalayan Bioresource Technology (IHBT)
in Palampur, India, provide a flower yield of
4000–5000 kg/ha (Kaul etal., 1999). Generally, flower yield follows a linear pattern up
to 5 or 7 years from the date of transplantation, although the economic life of an R. ×
damascena plantation is 10–12 years.
Collection of Some Important Wild
Medicinal Plants of Iran
Tragacanth (Astragalus gummifer)
Gum tragacanth is the second most important commercial gum worldwide, produced
by several shrubby plants of the genus As-
tragalus that are distributed from Pakistan
to Greece, particulary in Iran and Turkey
(Anderson, 1989). The genus Astragalus, belonging to the Papilionaceae family, comprises about 2500 species worldwide, distributed mainly in the Near East and the
Middle East but also common in southern
Europe (Wahhabi, 2005). Astragalus gummifer
is considered to be the main tragacanthyielding species. It is a small branching thorny
shrub with a height of 30–60 cm. Some
species such as Astragalus echidnaeformis
Sirjaev, Astragalus gossypinus Fisch., Astrag-
alus kurdicus Boiss., and Astragalus versus are
usually mentioned as a source of tragacanth.
The better gum-yielding species are small,
low, bushy perennials, frequently with a
cushion-like form.
Among them, A. gossypinus (Fig. 2.83),
which produces a high-quality gum, is a low,
spreading bush with a height of 8–12 cm
(Yazdanshenas etal., 2014). The exudate is
produced spontaneously on the bark of the
shrub, but the yield is often increased by
cutting into the bark. Gum tragacanth is obtained by tapping the branches and tap
roots. The gum dries as it exudes and is
Botany, Collection, and Cultivation 123
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quickly collected. The word tragacanth comes
from the Greek meaning “goat’s horn”,
which probably describes the appearance
and texture of the crude gum. Tragacanth
contains 20 to 30% v/v of a water-soluble fraction called tragacanthin (consisting of tragacanthic acid and arabinogalactan). It also
contains 60 to 70% v/v of a water-insoluble
fraction called bassorin. Tragacanthic acid is
composed of d-galacturonic acid, d-xylose,
l-fructose, d-galactose, and other sugars.
Tragacanthin is composed of uronic acid and
arabinose and dissolves in water to form a
viscous colloidal solution, while bassorin
swells to form a thick gel (Leung, 1980).
Tragacanth gum is a viscous, odorless,
tasteless, water-soluble mixture of polysaccharides obtained from the sap extracted
from the root of the plant and dried. It absorbs water to become a gel, which can be
stirred into a paste. The most important
applications of tragacanth gum today are in
the food and pharmaceutical industries. It is
also used in leather processing as an edge
smoother and polishing agent and occasionally serves as a stiffening agent in textiles.
Chemically, it is a complex mixture of acidic
polysaccharides, mainly present in the form
of calcium, magnesium, and potassium salts.
It is widely used in salad dressings and
sauces, savory spreads, milk shakes, ice
creams, and confectionery and bakery products. It is one of the oldest gums in the
world and its use dates back 5000 years
(Anderson and Bridgeman,1985). In Traditional Persian medicine, traganth is used
to improve the human immune system and
to alleviate side effects of other pharmaceuticals (Ameli, 1963).
Tragacanth swells rapidly in water to form
highly viscous colloidal sols or semi-gels
that act as protective colloids and stabilizing
124 Farsad Nadjafi and Mohammad Reza Kanani
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agents. The high viscosity of tragacanth solutions results from the molecular characteristics of the gum, which depend on the
quality and physical form of the gum and
how it is absorbed in water. The most important applications of tragacanth today are
now in foods and pharmaceuticals. Its use
for other industrial purposes has declined
over the years as cheaper alternatives to
tragacanth have been developed. Tragacanth
has long been an important gum for pharma
ceutical purposes and was used as a binder,
suspender, or emulsifier in tablets, ointments ,
lubricating jellies, and oral suspensions, and
particularly in dermatologic creams and
lotions. It is also used in toothpastes, hair
lotions, and other personal care products.
The gum is exported from the country of
origin in ribbon or flake form, and has a rather horny texture. Robbins (1988) estimates
the world market for tragacanth to be no
more than 500 t/year; almost half of this is
estimated to be consumed in Western Europe. Iran and Turkey have been the only significant producers of tragacanth for some
years, with Iran being the principal source.
Tragacanth is bought from origin as ribbons
or flakes; loss of viscosity of gum that has
been powdered and stored for long periods
means powdered tragacanth is always produced in the importing country. Iranian
tragacanth, which is generally regarded as superior to Turkish, is sold in about 12 different
grades: five ribbons (Ribbon no. 1, Ribbon no.
2, etc.) and the remainder flake. Ribbon no. 1
is the top grade, being the palest and cleanest.
Ribbon grades are usually used for pharma
ceutical purposes; flake is used for food applications. The lower flake grades are appreciably darker and contain some foreign
matter (Coppen, 1995). Tragacanth is sold
and specified by viscosity. There is an FAO
specification for food-grade tragacanth that
includes limits for arsenic, lead, and heavy
metals, as well as some other parameters.
Tragacanth is also specified in many pharmacopoeias for pharmaceutical use, including
the British Pharmacopoeia (Coppen, 1995).
The better gum-yielding species are
small, low, bushy perennials, frequently
with a cushion-like shape. However, they
have relatively large tap roots that are the
primary source of the gum. Gum-producing
Astragalus species are distributed in the
Iran-Turan mountains with poor flora and
soil condition at altitudes of 1200 to 3100 m
(Samsam Shariat, 1986). Also, habitats at
altitudes of 3760–4000 m have been reported (Zarinkamar, 1997). Annual precipitation of 200–400 mm and thermal range of
–10 to 36°C are the main charachteristics of
their habitats in Iran (Zarinkamar, 1997).
The presently practiced harvest
methods for tragacanth in Iran are incompatible with the ecological and botanical requirements of this species and cause severe
damage to the plant vegetation. In some
areas plants are harvested in the first year of
vegetation. Harvesting in the first year
shortens the total period of sprouting and
decreases the quality of the gum. In warm
climates, the plants are harvested in May
and in cold climates in June (Safar et al.,
1993). It is therefore recommended to consider a 2- to 4-year fallow period for plant
recovey (Safar etal., 1993). Research studies
have shown that the best harvesting method
involves use of plants with a canopy diameter of more than 25 cm, a shallow incision,
and avoiding cross-section incisions (Khosrogerdi, 1999).
The most striking feature of the gumproducing Astragalus is a central gum cylinder in the tap root, which is contained
by the woody cylinder and may be as much
as half the total diameter of the root. The
gum is contained in the cylinder at high
pressure and, when cut, exudes rapidly and
hardens into the characteristic ribbons of
tragacanth.
Some gum is collected from spontaneous exudation but most is obtained by tapping. The process of tapping entails clearing
away the earth surrounding the tap root and
making one or two cuts into the upper part
of the root. The cuts are usually made longitudinally or cross-angled to the root, 2–5 cm
long. Sometimes the branches are also cut
but this usually yields an inferior gum. After
a period of time that varies according to
local custom or circumstances, but may last
a few days or a week or longer, the tapper
returns to the plants that he has cut to collect the gum. Further collections may be
Botany, Collection, and Cultivation 125
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made thereafter but the quality of the gum
soon deteriorates to a point when it is not
worthwhile to continue. Flakes of gum, rather than ribbons, are usually produced later
in the season. Tapping is carried out in the
dry summer months and continues until the
autumn rains (Coppen, 1995). Several factors
are effective on the amount of gum production such as climate and especially precipitation, soil factors, type of species, age of
plants, and harvesting methods (Gentry,
1957; Hagiwara et al., 1992; Fahimi Poor
et al., 2010). Based on experimental field
work, Gentry (1957) estimated the average
yield of gum from Astragalus microcephalus to
be 15 g per 100-day tapping season. Yazdan
-
shenas etal. (2014) reported a gum yield of
1.19 to 2.42 g per plant in A. gossypinus.
Asafoetida (Ferula assa-foetida L.)
Asafoetida (Ferula assa-foetida L.) is the
plant used for production of dried latex
(gum oleoresin) exuded from the rhizome or
the perrenial fleshy tap root. The plant
grows 1 to 1.5 m tall, has deeply dissected
leaves, and inconspicuous yellow flowers
borne in compound umbels. The bark is
wrinkled (Golmohammadi, 2013). As its
name suggests, asafoetida has a fetid smell,
but in cooked dishes, when diluted, it provides a smooth flavor reminiscent of leeks.
Since it is very strong in taste and odour,
asafoetida is often blended with diluents
such as starch and flour and sold in a compounded form. An essential oil can be distilled from the oleoresin and finds minor use
for flavoring purposes.
The genus Ferula (Apiaceae) consists of
about 170 species worldwide, with 30 species found in Iran, of which 15 are endemic
for the country (Mozaffarian, 2007). Its root
is erect, succulent, and nearly thick. Its
leaves are gray with short hairs. It is a monocarp plant with schizocarp fruits, and it
grows up to 1000 m above sea level (Krebs,
1989). Phytochemical analyses of F. assa-
foetida confirmed the presence of 62% w/w
of resin, 25% w/w of gum, 3–7% w/w of
essential oil, 1.28% w/w of free sulfuric acid,
and small amounts of vanillin. Also, some
novel compounds such as sesquiterpene coumarin derivatives and sesquiterpene chromone derivatives have been isolated from
the roots of F. assa-foetida. Their structures
were established by comprehensive spectroscopic analyses (Bahrami etal., 2013; Meng
etal., 2013).
The raw material “asafoetida” is the
oleoresin exudate obtained from certain Fer-
ula species, particularly F. assa-foetida, which
occur in Afghanistan, Turkey, Iran, and surrounding areas. The product is one of the few
examples (another one is tragacanth gum) of
an exudate that is obtained by “tapping” the
roots of a shrubby plant (Fig. 2.84). The intense, characteristic smell of the plant is
mainly due to various sulfur compounds. Extracts of asafoetida hing are used in spice
blends and as a flavoring for meat sauces,
pickles, curries, and other food products.
The exudates from this plant are locally
known as anghuzeh, heng, and buganeh and
are traditionally applied for treatment of a
vast range of diseases: urinary, gastrointestinal, respiratory infections, and epilepsy,
but also as an aphrodisiac and an emmenagogue. It is furthermore used to treat snake
and insect bites as well as worm infections
(Hadidi etal., 2003; Shweta etal., 2011).
F. assa-foetida is one of the most important plants in arid regions of South Khorasan
Province. Local beneficiaries in South Khorasan believe that they make a profit of
US$1300–1500 annually for each family
from harvesting and gum production. That
is mainly the reason why this province ranks
third in gum production in Iran (Golmohammadi, 2013). Unfortunately, asafoetida
habitats are decreasing every year, due to
conventional and nonscientific harvesting
methods. Conventional harvesting involves
some steps such as identification in the regions, marking, twisting, cutting, and collecting the gum (Shinwari and Gilani, 2003;
Golmohammadi, 2013). India is the main
importer of asafoetida and the country imports 600 to 700 t annually, mostly from
Iran and Afganistan (Coppen, 1995).
A study of the effect of different pruning methods on gum yield and survival of
F. assa-foetida showed that the amount of sap
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