Добавил:
Sekretar
kiopkiopkiop18@yandex.ru
t.me/Prokururor I Вовсе не секретарь, но почту проверяю
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5847_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана
.pdf
460
https://t.me/medicina_free
tion, bearing one to many ovules per loculus; style slender, with a 3-lobed stigma.
Fruit a loculicidal capsule or a berry; seeds globose or attened, sometimes winged
[1].
S. Zafar etal.
18.2 Morphology
Garlic is unknown from the wild but probably wasderived from central Asian speciesAllium longicuspis. It is a hard clump forming perennial herb. It is usually with
15 cloves or bulbelts. Garlic forms bulb with a straight long stalk and slender leaves,
at the scapes. The scape is slender and succulent at the start when the plant is young.
When the plant mature and produce ower, it produce food, either processed in to
pesto or sautéed. The bulb consists of many individual cloves. Each of the clove of
the garlic is wrapped in it’s own papery skin. For vegetative growth, this cloves is
grown to produce a complete new garlic plant. It is a tricky plant to grow because
the bulbs can rot and can’t grow to a larger size bulb. For bulb to grow, the owering
scape must be cut in time, because the scape spent all of it’s energy in growing owers and will not grow to complete bulb [2].
18.3 Agronomy
18.3.1 Soil
Growth of garlic is very better in well irrigated fertile land and soil which is maximum in organic matter. To make the soil fertile for eld, organic matter or compost
is added into the fertile soils [3]. It makes the soil friable. Garlic is highly sensitive
to the saline, alkali and water logged soils, same as with the case of onion [4, 5]. The
electrical conductivity of a saturation extract for garlic crop is 3.9 dS/when the ECe
level beyond this, the yield of crop results in decline.
18.3.2 Varieties
The selection of variety is very crucial because it directly effects the yield of
the garlic.
The ICAR-DOGR has approved different varieties for different seasons and
regions of the country. These are best for the cultivation on a larger area [6].
18 G a rli c
https://t.me/medicina_free
461
18.3.3 Types ofGarlic
Garlic is also known as “Stinking rose”. Garlic is found in three varieties like Tahiti,
Italian and American [7]. American specie is of white skin and has the strongest
avor of all. Italian specie is pink and has a lot of cloves. Whereas, Tahiti, being the
largest grows to a height of 3 inches.
18.3.4 Field Preparation
The eld where we want to grow our garlic plant should be well ploughed by the use
of plough mould board and tiller by the use of cultivator 3–4 times to eliminate
debris and soil clods [8]. Organic matter equal to 75kgN/ha should be added in the
soil, when the soil is being ploughed at the last time. Beds of the same size must be
prepared after the soil is being leveled up.
Mostly, straight beds of 1.5–2.0m width and 4–6m length are made. In rainy
season or for the Kharif crops, preventions are carried out for water logging conditions by avoiding the formation of ats. For rainy seasons, broad bed furrows are
made, consisting of 120cm top, 45cm width and 15cm height. These prove to be
appropriate for the sprinkler and drip irrigation [9].
18.3.5 Planting
Planting is performed after keen observation of the clover selection. Before planting, the individual cloves of the garlic from the seed of the garlic bulb should be
removed. Before planting, peel off the skin of the cloves and separate the cloves
without damaging the bottom plate of the cloves [10]. The damage of the bottom
plate, made them waste to plant. The ideal size of the cloves for planting is >1.5g.
The clove should be healthy, it should not contain any spoiled, diseased and parasite. For preventing the cloves from fungal disease during establishment, the cloves
must be dipped in the carbendazin solution of about 0.1%. For one hector area,
almost 400–500kg seed of the clove must be available [11]. Following measures
should be in consideration, while planting the cloves vertically. Plantation should be
2cm below the soil, spacing between the plants should be 10cm and row to row
space should be 15cm [12]. Planting of garlic in Autumn gives the largest bulb
because the Garlic start to grow on the shortest days and nally mature on the longest days [13].
462
https://t.me/medicina_free
S. Zafar etal.
18.3.6 Manures andFertilizers
A sustainable agricultural system is one which provides safe, economically viable,
conserve resources and enhances the environment. Garlic is a heavy feeder but after
soil test results, the cloves should be recommended. Application of 75:40:40:40kg
NPKS/ha along with a doubling of two or three organic manures equivalent to
75kgN/ha is recommended for Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. Application of
100:50:50:50kg NPKS +20t FYM/ha is recommended for Haryana, Uttarkhand
and Uttar Pradesh [14]. Organic matter should be mixed good in the soil and added
before the last ploughing. One third of nitrogen and complete needs dose of
Phosphorus, Sulphur and Potassium must be added as basal at the time of planting
of crop [15]. After 30 and 45days of planting of crop, remaining two third of the N2
must be added after equal intervals [16].
18.3.7 Irrigation
Garlic is very sensitive to moisture throughout its growing season due to the absence
of deep root system. Proper care should be there for irrigation of the garlic, where it
should be irrigated right after planting and at 7–10days interval depending upon the
soil moisture available [17].
18.3.8 Harvesting
Harvesting of garlic crop start when the top of the leaf start dry, change of color and
also bend towards the ground surface. Another sign of the maturity of the bulb is the
reduction in the thickness of the leaves of the sheath that surrounding the portion of
the bulb [18]. Normally, garlic matures in between 130–180 days that totally
depending upon the location, season and cultivar [19].
18.4 Pest andDisease
18.4.1 Black Aphids
Called black aphids for their separation coloration, these small, black bugs will suck
the sap out of the leaves and the stem of your garlic. An organic, oil-based spray will
clog their spiracle (the small openings that allow the critters to breathe), and suffocate them [20].
18 G a rli c
https://t.me/medicina_free
463
18.4.2 Millipedes
Millipedes are the caterpillar or worm-like creatures that have all those legs! For
some people, they are the things their nightmares are made of, and they can certainly be on the creepier side of creepy crawlies [21]. Millipedes will eat potatoes,
bulbs, and tubers. The millipede lives in areas that have moist mulch or compost.
Therefore, to help reduce the threat, clean out all of the old mulch around a plant
and swap it with new mulch. Something else that seems to work with them is the
following mixture: 6 tablespoons eucalyptus oil 6 tablespoons Dawn® dishwashing
liquid (original scent) 1 quart water Mix and spray on the ground at night [22].
18.4.3 Maggot
The adult onion maggot is a gray that lays long, white eggs around the base of the
plant. The larvae are tiny and white, and will bore into the plant. The mature larva
is about 2/5 inches long, with feeding hooks attached [23]. The onion maggot
only has a 2 to 4-week lifespan, but one maggot can lay several hundred eggs during that short life. Winters do not kill them, either, as the pupae will overwinter in
the soil. The damage that the onion maggot causes includes stunted and/or wilted
seedlings, breakage of the plant at the soil line when you try to pull it, and
deformed bulbs, which may be more susceptible to storage rot [24]. To try to get
the onion maggot under control, good sanitation is key. In addition, make sure to
remove all bulbs from the soil at the end of the season so there is no food available [25].
18.4.4 Wheat Curl Mite
Common to the central plains area of the United States, the wheat curl mite is a
microscopic mite that transmits wheat streak mosaic. Noticeable damage from this
infection usually only appears when the infestation is severe. Leaves are streaked or
twisted and growth is stunted. The worst damage may be found on stored bulbs, as
the cloves may dry and crumble. If erected bulbs are planted the following season,
the plant can then be elected by yellow streak virus and the leaves will be damaged
[25]. The risk of wheat curl mite may be lessened by a hot water treatment for the
cloves, which is where they are quickly dipped in hot water, below boiling (which
can kill the clove) [26].
464
https://t.me/medicina_free
S. Zafar etal.
18.4.5 Eriophyd Mite
The eriophyd mite is a very common garlic pest. The mite is very, very tiny and may
not even be noticed until the damage has begun and the leaves are twisted with yellow or light-green streaks [27]. At this point, the leaves are virtually destroyed.
Early on, the leaves may not sprout, and if they do, the leaves may not separate. In
addition, if bulbs are stored for too long, they may come under attack as well, with
withered cloves and soft bulbs being the primary after erects. Predatory mites will
help keep these under control, which just goes to show the benets of “good”
pests [28].
18.4.6 Thrips
The thrips is quite common in warm weather. At only 1/25 of an inch in length, they
can hide in the angles of the leaves. The adults are pale yellow to light brown, while
the nymphs are lighter in color, as well as smaller [29]. The thrips feeds on the surface of the leaves, which in turn will cause them to lighten to a white or silver color.
Again, there are some predatory mites that will help in the control of the thrips [30].
18.4.7 Nematodes
The nematode is a little, worm-like creature, which lives inside the host. They don’t
need water, so they can survive for years in the soil and will continue to survive until
there are no more hosts available to them [31]. There are various types of nematodes, with specic symptoms presenting themselves once infestation has begun.
However, there are a few common symptoms, including stunted plants, yellowing,
swelled stems, and deformed bulbs. One type of nematode is the stem/bulb nematode. Almost invisible to the eye, it is a very tiny worm that invades the garlic’s tissue, causing the base area of mature plants to swell, and can cause sponginess with
long splits. The tissues, leaves, and stems will rot, with the leaves and stems also
twisting [32]. The plant will also have stunted growth. As nematodes are soil borne,
they are usually introduced through the movement of the soil, which is typically the
result of humans. To help manage this problem, a hot water bath may help kill bulb
infestation. However, once an area of the garden is infested, rotational planting for
a few years with something other than garlic or onion is the only thing that will help
in getting rid of these pests [33].
18 G a rli c
https://t.me/medicina_free
465
18.5 Diseases
18.5.1 Garlic Rust
Garlic rust is a fungal disease that not only an erects garlic, but the other alliums as
well. The fungus appears as orange and black specks on the leaves. It ourishes
when the weather is cool, with low sunlight and high humidity being its ideal environment [34]. As a result, when these conditions occur, do not water until late in the
day. The spores are transported by the wind, and as a result, an infection in one part
of the garden where your garlic or onions are could an erect the other parts of the
garden where onions, garlic, and leeks are planted [35]. Unless the infection is
severe, the garlic will still be edible. However, severe cases can drastically an erect
bulb development, with the possibility of killing the crop, especially if it occurs
early in the season. Although no resistance to garlic rust is known, there are a few
things that can help keep it at bay [36
drained soil, in the sunniest spot you can and, with plenty of space between the rows
for good air circulation. Clip an elected leaves as soon as the rest signs of rust
appear and throw the leaves in the garbage [37]. This should not elect either the stalk
or the garlic. Do not compost. If you have been around garlic rust, wash your hands
and clothes, and disinfect your shoes. Finally, once again, use crop rotation and do
not plant anything from the Allium genus in that area for at least 3years [38].
]. Plant your garlic, onions, or leeks in well-
18.5.2 Downy Mildew
Downy mildew is a furry, whitish growth with yellow discoloration in the leaves.
The pathogens can survive for many years as oospores. Downy mildew needs moist
conditions to spread, and one stage of the spore can even swim, allowing it to spread
and infect through the use of free water, as well as wind and rain, which in turn
make it airborne as well [39]. Downy mildew will kill young plants and stunt the
growth of older ones. If diseased bulbs are stored, the necks will turn black and
shrivel, the outer scales will become wet, and sprouting may occur [30].
18.5.3 Garlic Mosaic Virus
Transmitted by aphids, symptoms of garlic mosaic virus include chlorotic mottling
and stripes on the rest leaves to appear, with mature leaves having light-yellow, broken stripes. The mature leaves will also have what looks like a mosaic pattern to
them, from which the virus gets its name. Symptoms are usually mild on young
leaves, but growth will be stunted and bulbs will be small with few cloves. Because
the virus’s elects are so mild, however, there may be no symptoms at all showing [40].
466
https://t.me/medicina_free
S. Zafar etal.
18.5.4 Botrytis Rot
Botrytis rot is a fungus that attacks plants after there has been warm, wet weather.
Also called neck rot, symptoms include wet stems and a gray, fuzzy fungus. It can
also develop on stored bulbs. Steps for prevention include drying the garlic as
quickly as possible after harvest and providing good air circulation. Store in a cool
place. When planting, use healthy bulbs and allow plenty of room between rows [41].
18.5.5 Basal Rot
The signs of basal rot appear slowly, usually beginning with the leaves yellowing
and eventually dying. There can also be a white fungus at the base of the bulb,
which will then lead to rot either before or after the harvest, a erecting some or all
of the cloves. Basal rot prefers high temperatures and will attack already diseased or
pest-damaged plants. Not all infected bulbs will show symptoms, so make certain to
check each plant carefully. Basal rot is spread through infected cloves, contaminated soil improvement, or contaminated tools or equipment use [42]. Tips for management include removal of infected plants immediately after detection and avoiding
planting infected cloves. Do not move infected soil and disinfect tools and equipment that have come in contact with the rot. This includes shoes! A quick hot water
treatment for cloves may reduce the risk of basal rot by about half as well, helping
to keep your stored garlic safer [43].
According to the United Nation’s Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
almost 22.33 million metric ton of garlic is produced worldwide [44]. The largest
garlic producing continent of the world is Asia and produces more than 80% of the
garlic in the world. China is one of the largest garlic producing country in the world
in 2010, followed by other countries like India, South Korea, Egypt, Russia,
Myanmar, Ethiopia, USA, Bangladesh and Ukraine respectively [45] China contributes about 77% of the garlic production of the world output, which is equal to 18.56
MMT of garlic [46]. In case of garlic import, it is the 19th most important commodity of Pakistan. The other commodities include palm oil, rapeseed, sugar rened,
cotton lint, cake of soybeans, chick peas, sunower seed, dry onion, dry peas, jute,
tea, wheat, recants, our of wheat, tomatoes, residuals of fatty subs, lentils and fatty
acids [45] From the year 2001–2010, Pakistan was in the list of top 10 countries to
produce garlic [47]. Whereas in the years 2001 and 2002, Pakistan was on the 13th
and 14th position to produce garlic. In just two years, 2003 and 2008, Pakistan was
in the list of top 20 countries of the garlic production [48]. In these years, Pakistan
was both the importer and exporter of the garlic. Whereas in all other years, Pakistan
maintained it’s position of being in the top 10 countries [45]. Punjab produced about
44% of the total garlic of the Pakistan to export, followed by other provinces like
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Baluchistan and Sindh. Production of garlic and increase in
area is progressing well in this eld [49, 50].
18 G a rli c
https://t.me/medicina_free
467
Table 18.1
Province Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) Punjab Baluchistan Sindh
Production percentage 35% 44% 13% 8%
Total garlic production 32,205 tons 24,143 tons 7880 tons 6557 tons
Garlic production in Pakistan
In Pakistan, garlic production is on 7882 hectares at the present stage, with
70,925 tons, and the average yield is 8.99 tons/ha [51] (Table18.1).
Baluchistan, overall produced 7880 tons of garlic, which is the lowest of all the
provinces of Pakistan. In Baluchistan, Sibi region produce almost 40% of the total
garlic production and compared to the other province, like Ziarat, which is the main
growing region of the Baluchistan [50]. To ll the yield gap, the high-yielding garlic
varieties are produced on the mainland. The agriculture extension workforce is
working for the awareness, technology transfer and solving grower’s difculties [52].
18.6 Chemical Constituents
The most prominent quality feature of the product of the garlic is the prominent
avor of cloves, and all of this is due to of complex biochemical reactions [52, 53].
The mainstream compounds that are responsible for that avor are compound that
contain sulphur and non-volatile amino acids, most important of them are alliin or
S-allyl-cysteine sulfoxide that consist of the most predominant precursors of garlic
avor [54]. Besides these from their avor attributes, these sulfur compounds are
also necessary for the renowned medicinal properties of garlic, and in addition may
enhance the formation of glutathione, with the help of that we can nd important
antioxidant functions [55] . There are also some important volatile compound with
special bioactive attributes are ajoenes [24], as also many sulfur-containing compounds, such as allicin, such as diallyl-, 1,2-vinyldithiin, methyl allyl-, allixin and
S-allyl-cysteine and suldes, and dipropyl mono-, di-, tri- and tetra-suldes, that are
made after the thiosulnates decomposition [56]. The volatile behavior of these
bioactive molecules is important for the protective mechanism of garlic in response
to pathogens and pests [57]. These can also counterpart the lesions and damage of
the cell [58
sulfur compounds of the garlic are released. These damaged released the Alliin and
other sulfoxides, by the enzyme alliinase, present in the vacuole [33]. Garlic is rich
in many importanat vitamins like vitamins C and B, antioxidants minerals, avonoids [59]. Besides these volatile compounds, non-volatile compounds are also produced by the garlic plants. These non-volatile compounds are important for the
therapeutic and medicinal properties [60]. These important compounds include
saponins, nitrogen oxides, proteins, amides, avonoids and sapogenins [56]. For the
synthesis of ACSO’s, following important Γ Γ-glutamyl peptides components are
produced like γ-glutamyl-S-trans-1-propenyl-cysteine (IsoGluAlC),
]. When the cell membrane is damaged, the odor and volatile organo-
468
https://t.me/medicina_free
γ-glutamyl- Smethyl cysteine and γ-glutamyl-S-2-propenyl cysteine (GluAlC) [61].
Among all regularly used vegetables, garlic is considered as one of the important
source of total phenolic compounds. It is one of the main ingested material per
capita in the human diet [56]. Cultivation procedure and growing conditions produced verities which are different in the quantities of the total phenolic compounds
[62]. These can be detected by several ecotypes and genotypes [63]. Growing conditions also changed the other chemical makeup of the plant like pH, contents of
carbohydrates and total soluble solids. It variates in different genotypes [64].
S. Zafar etal.
18.7 Medicinal Uses
Oral treatment of the disease gonorrhea is performed by the decoction of the above
parts. A mixture of the plant plus 3 or 4 seed pods is taken. The juice of fresh leaf is
calculated orally for gonorrhea, bilharziasis, stomach troubles, and as an antiemetic.
Swelling and cuts are applied with powdered leaves [65]. For chest pain, decoction
of the leaves is taken. Steam of the boiling leaves is used for the inamed eyes. To
cure purulent eye infection, water extract of the dried seeds are used. Before extracting, the seeds are macerated in the water. For curing aphrodisiac, fresh roots are
chewed [66].
Combination of garlic with honey is also recommended for aphrodisiac as oral
medicine [67]. The seeds of garlic are toxic as reported by the reports while half
portion of the seed is even reported as lethal. The seed coat of the seed should be
broken as it approved to be toxic [68]. The symptoms of the acute gastroenteritis are
nausea, diarrhea and vomiting which are followed by convulsions, water deciency
and even death. The pulp of this plant is effective both for men and women. Like for
women, it used to facilitate childbirth. Whereas for men, it used to cure aphrodisiac
when taken orally. Orally used seeds are abortive and aphrodisiac. For ue and
cough like diseases the oral intake of leaves is also benecial [69]. Pine needles
when taken along with garlic, used to cure spring colds and stuck congestion. When
this aromatic pairing is used with delicious tea and honey, it open sinuses and loosen
stuck muscles [70].
Dried leaves and roots are used to taken hot extract and applied for the eye diseases. For emmenagogue, hot water extract of the root of the garlic is used, where it
is taken as oral medicine [71]. Root brew is taken orally to produce abortion. Other
uses of taken hot water extract as oral medicine include abortifacient, to prevent
conception and as an anti-fertility agent [72]. For females, In Unani and Ayurvedic,
seeds of the garlic are used as a poultice in vagina. Here it works as an abortifacient.
Whereas for males, seeds in the boiled milk is recommended for aphrodisiac, by the
Unani and Ayurvedic. It is reported that the Abrin toxic action is destroyed by the
boiling of seeds in milk. The seeds of garlic are also used as birth control medicine,
whereas, it is used as with completely covered with aggary and swallowed during
menstrual cycle [73]. It prevents the conception of the birth for at least one year. In
Unani system of medicine, hot water extract is used for stimulating the sexual
18 G a rli c
https://t.me/medicina_free
desire, when taken orally. Other used include, as purgative, painful swelling sand,
tuberculosis and aphrodisiac. This plant juice is inserted intra-vaginally to induce
abortion. For abortifacient process, dried seeds are taken orally [71].
469
18.7.1 Anti-Oxidant Activity
Antioxidants are the effective molecules in controlling the free radicals produced
inside the cells, which damaged the cells from inside. The source of these antioxidants are herbs and spices. These have a major role in redox signaling and antioxidants defense [74]. Furthermore, the phenolic compounds are the main elements
used inside these plants which help in the better performance of herbs to reduce the
toxic effects of oxidants. Cloves have the highest total phenolic compounds among
all the eighteen spices and herbs. Following are the polyphenols found in cloves like
quercetin, acetyl eugenol, protocatechuic acid, eugenol, gallic acid,, p-coumaric
acid, syringicacid and Kaempferol [75].
18.7.2 Alkaline Phosphatase Inhibition (Analgesic Activity)
For analgesic activity examination, the seed oil of the garlic was taken orally along
with Petroleum ether extract [76]. It proved to be effective on the uterus of the rats.
The medicine was applied intra-peritoneally to mice. An extract was made at the
ratio of 1:1 of the aerial parts of the plants with ethanol/water. The dosage applied
was 500.0mg/kg.
18.7.3 Anthelmintic Activity
For diagnosing, anthelmintic activity, the 15.8 mg/mI seeds water extract was
applied on Caenorhabditis elegans L, which showed weak activity [23]. As compared to the roots and stem of the plant was found to be active to show anthelmintic
activity on on schistosomules of the trematode Schistosoma mansoni and cystercoids of the cestode Hymenolepis diminuta, invitro [77].
18.7.4 Antibacterial Activity
Antibacterial activity was observed in the following bacterial species Salmonella
typhosa, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and
Bacillus subtilis. The extract of the aerial parts of the plants were found to be inef-
fective in showing antibacterial activity [78]. Whereas the seed extract along with
Соседние файлы в папке Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана