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17.9.4 Effects onMetabolic Diseases
Some of the effects of onion extracts on blood glucose were observed. An experiment was performed on diabetic rat. It was observed that the dietary onion induced
the benecial modulation of renal lesions in diabetic rats. The ability of onion to
decrease the lipid peroxidation and reduction in the blood cholesterol levels makes
it’s use in the amelioration of the diabetic nephropathy. Principle organo sulphur
compounds of Allium species include cysteine suphoxide [2, 53, 56].
17.9.5 Anticancer Effects
Onion organo sulphur compounds help to prevent cancer. Selenium is an important
component of organo Sulphur compounds. Quercetin and it’s derivatives, make the
typical anticarcinogenic constituents of the onions. The ethanolic extracts of onions
showed the antimutagenic effect, against the mutagenicity of N-nitrosamines was
observed. Allium exhibit protective effect against stomach and oesophagal cancer.
It also protects from gastrointentinal cancer. One of the studies shows that the intake
of the onion and ber reduce the risk of breast cancer [2, 61]. Onion oil is benecial
in reducing the number of tumors due to its antioxidant potential [2] and rate of it’s
growth in experimental mice. The growth of leukemia HL60 cells is suppressed due
to the onion oil.
17.9.6 Anti-inammatory Effects
Onion is found to be a protectant for inammation. Thiosulphinates and cepaenes
are involved in anti-inammation capacity of the onion plants. In vitro studies, the
onion extracts compounds like cepaene and thiosulphinates were found to be
involved in the inhibition of chemotaxis of human granulocytes [2].
17.10 Onion Annual Production andExport
The harvesting process must be start after the falling of 75% of the plant tops.
Irrigation must be stop before 15 of harvest. Careful measurements should be taken
while harvest to avoid any damage to bulb. While harvesting, diseased or insect
infected crop should be carefully removed. Harvesting should be performed during
dry weather. Harvest the plant when the bulb is in good condition [26].
In the year 2014, China and India reached almost 47.49% of the world’s total
onion production. Onion is almost produced on about 5.3million hectares of the
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world and the bulb production is about 88.48million matric tones for the year 2014.
Almost 8% of this onion production is traded internationally. With increasing population, the world market for onion production is increasing day by day [27, 62, 63].
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17.10.1 World Onion Exports
The World onion export for the year 2013 was 7.01million tonnes [27]. It was estimated that the world export value of dry onion approached 3266million US $ during 2013.
It is difcult to predict the trend of onion production which depends upon the
economic and technological factors. Some of the factors for improving the growth,
harvesting and storage process or techniques include effective research, improved
mechanization, by reducing the labour input and improving the quality of crops [51,
62, 63].
17.10.2 Breeding Goals
The main objective of breeding is the production of high quality bulbs and seeds.
Following characteristics are being observing while breeding, like resistance to
bolting, pathogens and pest. (Bolting is the owing of plant during the production
of bulb). High quality seeds are produced by uniform owering, straight seed stalks,
conditions for cleaning and drying of seeds, vigorous bulbs, pollinating insects.
Onion breeding is a very slow process. It requires almost 2years to complete one
generation e.g. seed to bulb and bulb to seed. There is a reduction in the yield of
bulb production by reducing the time to 1year.
17.11 Myths, Legends, Tales andInteresting Facts
Onions are one of the oldest vegetables in continuous cultivation dating back to at
least 4000BC.This crop was cultivated by the ancient Egyptian along the River
Nile. The center of origin of the onion plants is Afghanistan. Onions can be grown
from tropics to subarctic regions. Three groups of onion bulbs are found on the basis
of day length. Short day bulb with the length of about 11–12h, intermediate with
the day length of about 13–14h and long day with the day length of about 16years
or greater mostly found in the northern climes of US and Canada. Onion were
brought to the US by the early European settlers. After European settlements, onions
were brought to the northeast. Then the varieties move towards the south of United
States. Spain and Italy verities became important part of Vidalia onion industry.
After their coming from Bermuda, the rst onions were given name as “Bermuda
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onions”. After that different varieties of onion were developed including Early
Grano 502, Yellow Granex and Yellow Granex hybrid, YB986. The Vidalia onion
industry began in 1931 [24].
Yellow brown onions are common in Northern Europe, similar to those found in
New Zealand and Tasmania. Many countries produce open-pollinated to hybrid
onion cultivars. Many north-western European countries are producing hybrids. In
USA, North-Eastern and Central States, large, mild yellow pungent onions are
found. South East Asian countries produce large, yellow, sweet onion which are
mostly used in Japan. These onions are mostly resistance to bolting [2]. Some of the
factors which effect the onion production are photoperiod like longer photoperiod
result in earlier maturation [64–72]. Higher temperature causes increase in the bulb
development. Excess nitrogen result in the stimulation of the leaf growth. Irrigation
effects the leaf blade development. Other factors include plant age, interplant competition, plant size and cultivars [73–81]. Herbal medicines made from onion extract
and bulb, chemicals found in onions appear to lessen asthma-related lung stiffness
and congestion [82–85]. Additionally, it includes substances that appear to lower
blood sugar and cholesterol. Onion is used by people to avoid cuts and bruises
[86–93]. It is also used to treat excessive blood pressure, asthma, hair loss, obesity,
and insomnia [94–99]. There isn’t any solid scientic proof to back up these uses,
which include treating tumors and many other conditions.
The appearance of scars appears to be improved after using an onion extract gel
on the skin for at least 10weeks, either by itself or in combination with other ingredients. However, it’s unclear what dosage or ingredient mix is most effective.
Those who are overweight or fat cannot lose weight by eating onions or consuming onion extract.
The negative impacts could include heartburn and abdominal pain. When applied
to the skin the use of onion extract is probably harmless. Side effects might include
eczema or skin inammation. During pregnancy and while nursing, onions are frequently used in food. However, there isn’t enough trustable data to determine
whether using onion as medicine in higher doses while pregnant or breast-feeding
is safe. Keep to the recommended food amounts to be healthy. People who are sensitive to onion may also be allergic to mugwort and celery [100–103]. Onion may
lessen blood sugar and delay blood clotting [104–109]. During and after surgery,
this may make blood clotting more likely or make it more difcult to regulate blood
sugar levels. At least 2weeks prior to a major surgery, stop taking onion as medicine.
Onions can cause allergies in some people [110–113]. If you have an allergy to
onions, taking aspirin may make you more sensitive to them. To be safe, do not take
aspirin and consume onions if you have an allergy to onions.
Blood sugar levels may be lowered by onions [114–117]. Onion might slow
blood coagulation. The chance of bleeding and bruising may increase if onions are
taken with medicines that also slow blood clotting.
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17.12 Future Prospects
Development in the eld of onion industry led to the major changes and opportunities for the onion production. Onions are the most used vegetables and staple food
in the cuisine of diverse cultures worldwide. They are the most demanded ingredient in innovative products like instant noodles, grain based snacks and sh products.
For examples, production of the day-length insensitive onions. Arabidopsis plant
used as the basic plant for the study of owering and day-length responses. The
same genetic system as of Arabidopsis exists in onion plant. This is estimated that
by using this method, the onion plants are able to produce bulbs after sprouting
number of true leaves and after their maturity after a number of degree days.
The second future focus is to reduce the representation sequence of the genomic
DNAs, under the heading complementing transcriptome sequencing. For this, DH
will be used as line for transcriptome sequencing. Duplex-specic nuclease and
Methyl-ltered libraries is of great focus to be available for the researcher [7, 118].
To study introns and promoter regions of the onions, the random sequence should
be focused. But, large number of genomic sequences should be avoid. As due to
onion simple genome, these will not show any signicant similarities to the
cDNAs [118].
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S. Zafar etal.
Chapter 18
https://t.me/medicina_free
Garlic
SaraZafar, NaziaAslam, MuhammadZia-Ul-Haq, ShaguftaPerveen,
andNaeemIqbal
18.1 Introduction
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Tracheophyta
Class: Liliopsida
Order: Asparagales
Family: Amaryllidaceae
Subfamily: Allioideae
Genus: Allium
Herbaceous geophytes, with bulbs or rhizomes. Leaves simple, entire, linear to
broadly lanceolate or strap-shaped, sometimes sheathing at base forming a pseudostem. Peduncle central or lateral, subtended by 2 or more spathe valves. Flowers
bisexual, regular or nearly so, umbellate (rarely solitary) with one to many owers,
interrupted by ephemeral hyaline bracts. Perianth segments biseriate, equal or subequal, inserted above the ovary, free or tube-like when united, sometimes bearing a
false corona. Stamens 6, rarely more (Gethyllis), lying opposite the perianth segments, arising from the tube or segment’s base. Filaments liform or expanded at
base, connate into a pseudocorona; anthers 2-locular, basixed, introse and have
longitudinal slits for opening. Ovary have 3 locules, inferior, with axile placenta-
S. Zafar (*) · N. Aslam · S. Perveen · N. Iqbal
Department of Botany, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
e-mail: sarazafar@gcuf.edu.pk
M. Zia-Ul-Haq
Ofce of Research, Innovation and Commercialization, University of Engineering
and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
M. Zia-Ul-Haq etal. (eds.), Essentials of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-35403-8_18
459
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