Английский язык химия и экология в современном мире. Учебное пособие

● После глаголов to seem, to appear, to prove инфинитив,

выраженный глаголом-связкой to be, часто опускается. He seems (to be) surprised. Кажется, он удивлён.

3. Когда сказуемое выражено сочетанием глагола to be и

прилагательным: likely — вероятный, unlikely — невероятный, certain — несомненный, sure — верный, безусловный. Indefinite Infinitive после этих сочетаний обычно выражает действие, относящееся к будущему времени.

Не is likely to bring a new magazine. - Он, вероятно, принесет новый журнал.

Ex. 5. Translate the sentences and define the kind of the Infinitive construction.

1. I would like the experiment to be a success.2. This machine is sure to be expensive. 3. Most of his tutors expected him to do well at Harvard. 4. It is a natural process for a fire to draw in air to consume its oxygen. 5. Liquid crystals are considered to be intermediate between liquid and solid. 6. Everybody waited for the meeting to start. 7. Painted steel is likely to be less durable than other kinds. 8. James is said to be a capable student. 9. They found the substance to be a compound of two gases. 10. We know A.V. Shubnikov to have made the first systematic measurements of the properties of Type II superconductors. 11. No scientist could suppose this estimation to be true. 12. The effect on plant life and aquatic systems is also expected to be devastating. 13. We've put pumps in to aerate the water and feed back oxygen into the dam for the fish to survive. 14. The plan is certain to be opposed.

Ex. 6. Paraphrase the following sentences according to the given models.

A.He must prove the theory. I want him to prove the theory.

1.You mustn’t be late for work. - I don’t want … . 2. Students mustn’t do any experiments without a professional supervision. - I don’t want … . 3. He must mend this apparatus. - I want … . 4. You mustn’t make a mess. - I don’t want … . 5. You must mix these substances in special porcelain vessels. - The teacher wanted … .

B.We think that this research work will be completed in a month. – We think this research work to be completed in a month.

1.They supposed that this test will be carried out next month. 2. Everybody knows that litmus and pH paper turn red in strong acids and blue in strong bases.

3.I saw that they were testing this device. 4. We know that the first atomic power station has been built in Obninsk.

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Ex. 7. Word-building. Use the word in brackets to form a word that fits in the gap.

When … (polymer) is initiated by peroxides, free radical is formed as intermediate. A … (to vary) of unsaturated compounds like alkenes, alkadienes [ˌalkəˈdaɪ.iːns] readily undergoes polymerization in the … (present) of peroxide like benzoyl peroxide, acetyl peroxide with high temperature and high pressure.

For example, the polymerization of ethene to form polythene is followed by free radical polymerization. … (to react) takes place at high temperature (350-

570 k) and high … (to press) (1000-2000 atm) in the presence of benzoyl [ben′zɒ il΄] peroxide as an … (to initiate) for reaction.

Peroxide generates free radical which reacts with ethene to form another radical, which takes part in propagation step to form polymer chain. The … (to combine) of polymeric chain through radical site terminates the reaction to form polymer chain.

Ex. 8. Translate the text.

Химия высокомолекулярных полимеров появилась после того, как русский химик и ученый Александр Михайлович Бутлеров создал теорию химического строения органических веществ. Бутлеров доказал, что если изменяется строение молекулы вещества, то изменяются и его свойства, даже если состав молекулы остаётся прежним. Это открытие позволило начать изменение химических веществ. В результате были получены абсолютно новые полимеры.

Полимеры подразделяют на органические, неорганические и элементоорганические.

В молекулы органических полимеров входят атомы углерода, кислорода, водорода, азота, серы.

Если в состав полимера входят атомы всех перечисленных химических элементов и атомы алюминия, титана, кремния, то такие полимеры называются элементоорганическими.

Неорганическими считают полимеры, в молекулах которых нет атомов углерода.

Ex. 9. Fill in the proper words from the box.

arrangement control degree designed patterns resistance translucence

Obviously not all polymers are transparent. The polymer chains in objects that are translucent and opaque may be in a crystalline … . By definition, a crystalline arrangement has atoms, ions, or in this case, molecules arranged in distinct … . You generally think of crystalline structures in table salt and gemstones, but they can occur in plastics. Just as cooling can produce amorphous arrangements, processing can … the degree of crystallinity for those polymers

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that are able to crystallize. Some polymers are … to never be able to crystallize. Others are designed to be able to be crystallized. The higher the … of crystallinity, generally, the less light can pass through the polymer. Therefore, the degree of … or opaqueness of the polymer can be directly affected by its crystallinity. Crystallinity creates benefits in strength, stiffness, chemical … , and stability.

Ex. 10. Translate the sentences.

1. Благодаря своим уникальным эксплуатационным свойствам, полимеры применяются практически во всех отраслях промышленности для изготовления различных деталей. 2. Новые химические технологии дают возможность производить новые полимерные материалы с заданными свойствами. 3. Известно, что полимеры это химические вещества, молекулы которых представляют собой цепочки повторяющихся мономеров. 4. Известно, что в результате поликонденсации образуются побочные продукты – вода, хлороводород (hydrogen chloride), аммиак, метиловый спирт (methanol), диоксид углерода. 5. Важно, чтобы вы понимали, что биохимия изучает различные типы молекул. 6. Полагаю, этот материал – слишком хрупкий, чтобы использовать его для производства фарфора. 7. Вы наверняка, уже видели эти графики в литературе. 8. Оказывается оргстекло (plexiglas), стекловолокно (fiberglass) и полипропилен выдерживают довольно высокие температуры. 9. Я слышал, что он открыл завод по производству полимерных материалов. 10. Кажется, нет никаких ограничений фантазии по применению полимерных материалов в современном мире.

Ex. 11. Match the words and the definitions.

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TEST

1. Translate the text and put four questions of different types to it.

Natural polymers (from the Greek poly meaning “many” and meros meaning “parts”) are found in many forms such as horns of animals, tortoise shell, shellac (from the lacbeetle), rosin (from pine trees), asphalt, and tar from distillation of organic materials. One of the most useful of the natural polymers was rubber, obtained from the sap of the hevea. (Rubber was named by the chemist Joseph Priestley who found that a piece of solidified latex was good for rubbing out pencil marks on paper. In Great Britain, erasers are still called “rubbers”.) Natural rubber had only limited use as it became brittle in the cold and melted when warmed. In 1839, Charles Goodyear discovered that by heating the latex with sulfur, the properties were changed making the rubber more flexible and temperature stable. That process is known as vulcanization.

The first synthetic polymer, a phenol-formaldehyde polymer, was introduced under the name “Bakelite”, by Leo Baekeland in 1909. Its original use was to make billiard balls. Rayon, the first synthetic fiber was developed as a replacement for silk in 1911.

Although many polymers were made in the following years, the technology to mass produce them was not developed until World War II, when there was a need to develop synthetic rubber for tires and other wartime applications and nylon for parachutes. Since that time, the polymer industry has grown and diversified into one of the fastest growing industries in the world. Today,

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polymers are commonly used in thousands of products as plastics, elastomers, coatings, and adhesives. They make up about 80% of the organic chemical industry with products produced at approximately 150 kg of polymers per person annually in the United States.

http://www.chymist.com/Polymer%20lab.pdf

2. Complete the sentences with Infinitive Constructions.

3. Match a phrase from column A with one from column B to make a sentence.

4.Fill in the blanks with particle “to” where necessary.

1.Our professor wants us … make use of these data.

2.This error is certain … have influenced the ability to identify biomarkers.

3.He noticed barium … form peroxide.

4.Latex is known … solidify in air.

5.I want … have inorganic nanocrystals as n-type semiconductor studied.

5.Translate the sentences into English.

1.Этот материал оказался термоустойчивым.

2.На этом заводе относительно легко производить сложные формы из поливинилхлорида экономичным способом.

3.Он услышал, как профессор объяснил ошибку в построении

графика.

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4.Какой метод вероятнее всего даст наилучшие результаты?

5.Я и не предполагал, что количество ковалентных связей влияет на качество винила.

ADDITIONAL READING

Polymer Composites

Any material which is made of more than one component is called as composite [ˈkɔmpəzɪt]. For example, when natural rubber is embedded between two layers of cotton fibres, water proof composite material is formed because cotton is made up of cellulose which is a good material for making rain coats, gloves and other water proof fabrics while natural rubber makes it water proof.

Hence we use composite to make a material which has the properties of both its constituent components.

Nowadays, a composite is made up of two components, a fiber and matrix. Generally, fiber is glass, Kevlar, carbon fiber, or polyethylene and matrix is thermosetting polymer. The common thermosetting polymers are epoxy resin, polydicyclopentadiene, or a polyimide [pəˈlɪmɪtɪ]. In formation of composite, fiber is embedded in the matrix for making the matrix stronger. These composites are also called as fiber-reinforced composites. They are very strong infecting more than steel, but weigh much less.

The main application of composites is in making automobiles, disc brake pads, shower stalls and bathtubs, Imitation granite and cultured marble sinks and counter tops. They are widely used in the manufacturing of spacecraft. In general, commercially produced composites use a polymer matrix material which are called a resin solution.

A large number of polymers are available for making polymer composite depending upon the starting raw ingredients. Common examples of polymer matrix are polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, phenolic polymer, polyamide and polypropylene etc.

Fiberglass is the most common fiber-reinforced composite. This matrix is formed by reacting polyester and styrene.

The fibers aren't lined up in any particular direction in fiberglass. For increasing the strength of composites all fibers are lined up in the same direction.

Thermosetting Polymer

A very distinct feature of thermosetting polymer is its giant macromolecular repeating unit formed due to polymerisation. This giant macromolecule which mixes throughout the material is considered as a gel. Unless the covalent bonds present within are destroyed due to high temperature or due to some high reactive reagent the thermosetting polymer material will not start flowing. The entire network of covalent bond present in polymer gives its specific thermosetting property. A very reactive reagent can make the polymer

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swell in volume but cannot possibly dissolve it completely. The heating effect helps in dissociating the individual polymer material to turn from gel into a fluid material. This method can be reversed in case the temperature is brought down. This happens because the covalent cross links helps in bringing it as gelatine [ʤeləˈtiːn] material and hence when heat is applied these links breaks in most places but as soon as the temperature is reversed, the cross links get back to their original form.

The synthesis and shaping of thermoplastic polymer are the same as those of thermosetting polymer and in some cases are processed by combining the injection molding of pre polymers with reactive chain ends and obtain a high molar mass linear polymer. The dilution of initial monomer with polymerisation product is essential to reduce both the temperature increase and final shrinkage of the product. The density of secondary forces is very high which results in degradation of chemical structure even before a fluid state is achieved.

As the polymer netwrok is produced in irreversible manner, the synthesis of thermosetting polymer is carried out to produce a final material with a specific shape. The situation is different for most of thermoplastic polymers. In thermosetting polymers in case of wrong processing methods, the product becomes completely different. In case of thermoplastic the material can be used again and again to get a desired material. The synthesis of thermosetting polymer begins from monomers and at a particular conversion of these functional groups, the gelation takes place which means that a giant macromolecule which gets into the material starts appearing in the system. The sol-gel specific transition is a distinctive feature of thermosetting polymers.

Before the gelation of the material takes place the sol is considered as the final value of viscosity and at gelation the viscosity increase to infinite limits. After the gelation an insoluble part gets fully converted due to functional groups and the sol disappears leaving the final thermosetting polymer composed of giant gel molecule.

The thermosetting polymers are mostly amorphous in nature as there is no possible network order due to presence of cross links restriction. Thermosetting polymers are well established in application where the thermoplastic polymers are not considered because of the cost factor or because of its properties. For example, phenolics constitute a fire resistant due to its self-extinguishing and low smoke properties.

Thermosetting polymers are formed in two different ways.

Polymerisation monomers and at least one of them having functionality higher than 2.

By producing chemical cross links between linear and branched macromolecules. We get to see these in vulcanisation of rubber.

For amorphous thermoplastics, the flow will take place by heating beyond the glass transition temperature and for semi crystalline thermoplastic the heat is necessary beyond the melting temperature to reach fluid state.

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https://chemistry.tutorvista.com/analytical-chemistry/polymers.html

UNIT 8

Ex. 1. Read and translate the text.

Illegal Wildlife Trade

The world is dealing with an unprecedented spike in illegal wildlife trade, threatening to overturn decades of conservation gains. Ivory estimated to weigh more than 23 metric tons—a figure that represents 2,500 elephants—was seized in the 13 largest seizures of illegal ivory in 2011. Poaching threatens the last of our wild tigers that number around 3,890.

Wildlife crime is a big business. Run by dangerous international networks, wildlife and animal parts are trafficked much like illegal drugs and arms. By its very nature, it is almost impossible to obtain reliable figures for the value of illegal wildlife trade. It is supposed to be hundreds of millions of dollars.

Some examples of illegal wildlife trade are well known, such as poaching of elephants for ivory and tigers for their skins and bones. However, countless other species are similarly overexploited, from marine turtles to timber trees. Not all wildlife trade is illegal. Wild plants and animals from tens of thousands of species are caught or harvested from the wild and then sold legitimately as food, pets, ornamental plants, leather, tourist ornaments and medicine. Wildlife trade escalates into a crisis when an increasing proportion is illegal and unsustainable—directly threatening the survival of many species in the wild.

Wildlife crimes are the largest direct threat to the future of many of the world’s most threatened species. It is second only to habitat destruction in overall threats against species survival. https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/illegal-wildlife-trade

Ex. 2. Write the short summary of the text.

Ex. 3. Match the words with their equivalents.

Ex. 4. Translate the following sentences. Pay attention to the words in italics.

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1. The seismograph showed a sharp spike in response to the temblor. 2. Elephants used to be hunted for the ivory from their tusks. 3. The Coast Guard is allowed to perform search and seizure without warrants. 4. Hunger and poverty, the main reasons for their poaching, are not treated by the courts as extenuating circumstances. 5. They trafficked in smuggled goods openly. 6. Although it is hard to obtain reliable figures for some countries, in 2012 the total number of dogs in the world was at least 525 million. 7. Fisheries and common land grazing are overexploited because they are either common property, or open access, owned by all. 8. The radio is legitimately owned by the company. 9. Ornamental crabapple, a kind of important ornamental plants, is widely used in gardens on north temperate zone. 10. Life on Earth will become unsustainable unless population growth is held in check. 11. There are only 2,000 of the bears remaining, and they're threatened by hunters, poachers and habitat destruction. 12. The only way that illegal wildlife trade will be successfully restricted is by governments committing more time and resources to do so.

Infinitive or Gerund

После некоторых глаголов может использоваться как инфинитив, так и герундий. При этом они согласовываются с обеими формами без

изменения значения: begin, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, propose, start.

We started to read/reading. – Мы начали читать.

Также существуют глаголы, которые могут употребляться и с инфинитивом, и с герундием, но они меняют свое значение:

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Ex. 5. Translate the sentences paying attention to the Gerunds and Infinitives.

1. I didn't count on his capsizing the burner (горелка). 2. Protecting the environment is every man's responsibility. 3. It used to be that poachers were able to keep their licenses as long as they paid their fines 4. I couldn't control myself and burst out laughing. 5. We must encourage the planting of new trees and preserve our existing woodlands. 6. Environmental groups worry about whether the new agency will focus on protecting the environment or on attracting tourists. 7. They decided to widen out the river to avoid the flooding. 8. Coffee has been blamed for increasing the pulse rate. 9. You might be surprised to learn that Canadian poaching wars were for fish. 10. He might not mind being placeless, but I mind. 11. When the population size reaches a peak, few organisms succeed in reproducing. 12. Animal conservationists disapprove of experimenting on animals. 13. She hotly denied having taken the money. 14. Despite ivory trade bans in 1989, elephant numbers continue to decline in Africa. 15. People rightly insist on being treated as individuals.

Ex. 6. Word-building. Use the word in brackets to form a word that fits in the gap.

Wildlife trafficking is a … (to grow) epidemic. A market for exotic birds and rare seafood delicacies is exploding in Latin America. In Southeast Asia, the rising trade in pangolins – the most trafficked animal on Earth – has driven the small mammals to the brink of … (extinct), with hunters now pursuing …

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