Анатомическая терминология в английском языке. Учебное пособие
.pdfCHAPTER 7. MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
BONES
Text 1. Introduction
Bones, by providing the framework around which the body is constructed, protect and support our internal organs. Also, by serving as a point of attachment for muscles, bones assist in body movement. The inner core of bones is composed of hematopoietic tissue, while other parts are storage areas for minerals necessary for growth. [2, c. 194–195]
Developing Questions: Something to Think about
1.What is hematopoietic tissue? [clues: red bone marrow; to manufacture; blood cells]
2.What minerals are necessary for growth and strength of bones?
Text 2. Formation of Bones
Bones are complete organs, chiefly composed of connective tissue called osseous [bony] tissue plus a rich supply of blood vessels and nerves. Osseous tissue is a dense connective tissue which consists of osteocytes surrounded by a hard, intercellular substance filled with calcium salts.
During fetal development, the bones of the fetus are composed of cartilage tissue, which resembles osseous tissue but is more flexible and less dense. The gradual replacement of cartilage by bone cells and calcium deposits is called ossification [bone formation].
Osteoblasts are the immature bone cells which produce the bony tissue during ossification. Osteoclasts [-clast means to break] are large
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cells which function in bone to reabsorb, or digest, bony tissue. A bone grows through the action of osteoclasts.
The formation of bone is dependent on a proper supply of calcium and phosphorus to the bone tissue. [2, c. 197–198]
Task
Compare the following Latin terms with the corresponding English ones:
textura ossea; substantia intercellularis; Calcium; textura cartilaginea; Phosphorus
Developing Questions: Something to Think about
1.Explain the terms of Greek origin osteocyte, osteoblast and osteoclast by their term elements [combining forms].
2.Why is cartilage tissue softer than osseous tissue? [clue: lack; calcium salts]
3.Explain the meaning of the Latin prefix interin the term intercellular.
4.With a sufficient amount of what vitamin must calcium and phosphorus be taken to help the passage of calcium into the bloodstream and give bone its characteristic hard quality?
Text 3. Structure of Bones
Bones are of several different types. Long bones are found in the thigh, lower leg, and upper and lower arm. These bones are very strong, are broad at the end where they join with other bones, and have large surface areas for muscle attachment.
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Short bones are found in the wrist and ankle and have small, irregular shapes. Flat bones are found covering soft body parts. These are the shoulder bone, ribs, and pelvic bones. Sesamoid bones are small, rounded bones, found near joints. The knee cap is the largest example of this type of bone.
The shaft, or long middle region, of a long bone is called the diaphysis. Each end of a long bone is called an epiphysis. The periosteum is a strong, fibrous, vascular membrane that covers the surface of a long bone, except at the ends of the epiphyses. Bones other than long bones are completely covered by periosteum as well. Beneath the periosteum is the layer of immature cells [osteoblasts] which deposit calcium-phosphorus compounds in the bony tissue.
The ends of long bones are covered by a thin layer of articular cartilage. This cartilage layer cushions the bones at the place where they meet with other bones.
Compact [cortical] bone is a layer of hard, dense tissue which lies under the periosteum in all bones and chiefly around the diaphysis of long bones. Within the compact bone is a system of small canals containing blood vessels which bring oxygen and nutrients to the bone and remove waste products such as carbon dioxide. Compact bone is tunneled out in the shaft of long bones by a central medullary cavity which contain yellow bone marrow. Yellow bone marrow is chiefly composed of fatty connective tissue.
Cancellous bone, sometimes called spongy bone, is much more porous and less dense than compact bone. It is found largely in the epiphyses of long bones and in the middle portion of most other bones as well. Spaces in cancellous bone contain red bone marrow. This marrow is richly supplied with blood. [2, c. 198–200]
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Task
Compare the following Latin terms with the corresponding English ones:
ossa longa; ossa brevia; brachium; ossa pelvina; costae; patella; cartilago articularis; os compactum; cavitas medullaris; medulla ossium
Developing Questions: Something to Think about
1.Give the antonyms to the adjectives irregular, immature.
2.Why are sesamoid bones are called like this? [clues: to resemble; grain of sesame; shape]
3.Analyze the structure of terms diaphysis, epiphysis, periosteum by term elements [combining forms].
Text 4. Processes and Depressions in Bones
Bone processes are enlarged tissue which normally extend out from bones. The shapes of some of the common bony processes are as follows:
-bone head — rounded end of a bone separated from the body of the bone by a neck
-tubercle — small, rounded process which serves as a site of tendon or muscle attachment
-trochanter — large projection on the femur which serves as a site of attachment for muscle
-tuberosity — large, rounded process which serves as a site of muscle or tendon attachment
-condyle — rounded, knuckle-like process at the joint.
Bone depressions are the openings or hollow regions in a bone which, like the processes, help to join one bone to another and serve as a passageway for blood vessels and nerves. The names of some common depressions are:
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- fossa — furrow or hollow area in a bone
NB! sing. fossa — plur. fossae [from Latin]
- foramen — opening for blood vessels and nerves
NB! sing. foramen — plur. foramina [from Latin]
-fissure — a narrow, deep, slitlike opening
-sulcus — a groove
NB! sing. sulcus — plur. sulci [from Latin]
- sinus — air cavity within a bone. [2, c. 200]
Tasks
1.Compare the following Latin terms with the corresponding English ones:
processus osseus; collum ossis; tuberculum ossis; trochanter femoris; tuberositas ossis; condylus; fossa; foramen; fissura; sulcus; sinus
2.Below are the names of bones belonging to different parts of the skeleton. Find their Latin counterparts.
Cranial Bones:
- frontal bone - parietal bone
- temporal bone - occipital bone - sphenoid bone - ethmoid bone
Facial Bones:
- nasal bones
- lacrimal bones - maxillary bones
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-mandibular bone
-zygomatic bone
-vomer
Vertebral Column:
-cervical vertebrae
-thoracic vertebrae
-lumbar vertebrae
-sacrum
-coccyx
Bones of the Thorax:
-clavicle
-scapula
-sternum
-ribs
Bones of the Arm and Hand:
-humerus
-ulna
-radius
-carpals
-metacarpals
-phalanges
Bones of the Pelvis:
-pelvic girdle
-ilium
-ischium
-pubis
Bones of the Leg and Foot:
-femur
-patella
-tibia
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-fibula
-tarsals
-metatarsals
-phalanges of the toes
JOINTS
Text 1. Classification of Joints
A joint [articulation] is a coming together of two or more bones. There are three types of joints in the body. They are classified according to the degree of movement which the bone permits.
A synarthrosis is a joint which does not permit movement at all. Bones come together and are bound, or united, by a layer of fibrous tissue.
An amphiarthrosis is an articulation which permits slight movement. The bone surfaces of the joint are connected by elastic fibrocartilage and are partially movable.
A diarthrosis is a freely movable joint. The bones in a diarthrotic joint are separated by a joint capsule, composed of fibrous cartilage tissue. Ligaments [fibrous bands of connective tissue] often anchor the bones together around the joint capsule to strengthen it. The surface of the bones at the joint is covered with a smooth cartilage surface called the articular cartilage. The synovial membrane lies under the joint capsule and lines the synovial cavity between the bones. The synovial cavity is filled with a special lubricating fluid produced by the synovial membrane. This synovial fluid contains water and nutrients which nourish as well as lubricate the joints so that friction on the articular cartilage is minimal. [2, c. 210–211]
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Task
Compare the following Latin terms with the corresponding English ones:
articulatio; sutura; capsula articulationis; ligamentum; cartilago articularis; membrana synovialis; cavitas synovialis
Developing Questions: Something to Think about
1.Explain the meaning of the term synarthrosis by its combining
forms.
2.Give the example of synathrosis. [clues: suture joints; skull]
3.Give the example of amphiarthrosis. [clues: vertebrae; bones of ankle and wrist]
Text 2. Bursae
Bursae are closed sacs of synovial fluid lined with a synovial membrane. They are formed in the spaces between tendons [connective tissue binding muscles to bones], ligaments [connective tissue binding bones to bones], and bones.Bursae lubricate these areas where friction would normally develop close to the joint capsule.
Some common bursae locations are at the elbow joint [olecranon bursa], knee joint [patellar bursa], and shoulder joint [subacromial bursa]. [2, c. 211]
NB! sing. bursa — plur. bursae [from Latin]
Task
Compare the following Latin terms with the corresponding English ones:
bursa synovialis; tendo; olecranon; bursa patellaris; bursa subacromialis
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MUSCLES
Text 1. Types of muscles
There are three types of muscles in the body.
Striated muscles, also called voluntary or skeletal muscles, are the muscle fibers which move all bones, as well as the face and eyes. We have conscious control over the activity of this type of muscle. Striated muscle fibers [cells] contain many nuclei and have a pattern of dark and light bands, or fibrils, in their cytoplasm.
NB! sing. nucleus — plur. nuclei [from Latin]
A delicate membrane called a sarcolemma surrounds each skeletal muscle fiber.
Smooth muscles, also called involuntary or visceral muscles, are those muscle fibers which move our internal organs such as the digestive tract, blood vessels, and secretory ducts leading from glands. We have no conscious control over these muscles. They are called smooth because they have no dark and light fibrils in their cytoplasm. There is only one nucleus to a cell in smooth muscle fibers. While skeletal muscle fibers are arranged in bundles, smooth muscle forms sheets of fibers as it wraps around tubes and vessels.
Cardiac muscle is striated in appearance but like smooth muscle in its action. Its movement cannot be consciously controlled. The fibers of cardiac muscle are branching fibers and are found in the heart. [2, c. 213– 214]
Task
Compare the following Latin terms with the corresponding English ones:
musculus; musculi; fibra
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Text 2. Action of Skeletal Muscles
Skeletal muscles are the muscles which move the bones. When a muscle contracts, one of the bones to which it is joined remains virtually stationary as a result of other muscles which hold it in place. The point of attachment of the muscle to the stationary bone is called the origin of that muscle. However, when the muscle contracts, another bone to which it is attached does move. The point of junction of the muscle to the bone that moves is called the insertion of the muscle.
Near the point of insertion, a muscle narrows and is connected to the bone by way of a tendon [stringy, cordlike sheath of connective tissue]. One type of tendon which helps attach muscles to bones is called aponeurosis.
Muscles can perform a variety of actions. Some of these actions are listed below:
-flexion
-extension
-abduction
-adduction
-rotation
-supination
-pronation. [2, c. 214–215]
Tasks
1. Read short descriptions of the specific types of movement performed and give the term for each of them [use the list of terms above]:
-facing downward; as applied to the hand, the act of turning the palm backward posteriorly
-bending, decreasing the angle at the joint between bones
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