Анатомическая терминология в английском языке. Учебное пособие
.pdfDeveloping Questions: Something to Think about
1.What is rennin? What is its role? [clues: kidney, produce, substance, stimulate, contraction, arterioles, increased blood pressure, normal blood flow]
2.What wastes do kidneys filter out? [clues: urea, creatinine, uric
acid]
3.Why can’t proteins pass through the walls of the glomerulus?
[clues: large molecules]
4.What is composition of urine? [clues: 95 % water; 5 % urea, creatinine, acids, salts, bile pigments]
5.What causes the desire to urinate? [clues: bladder; fill up; muscular contraction; walls of the bladder; pressure; the base of the urethra]
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CHAPTER 4. NERVOUS SYSTEM
Text 1. General Structure of the Nervous System
The nervous system can be classified into two major divisions: the central nervous system [CNS] and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system consists of 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
In addition to the spinal and cranial nerves, the peripheral nervous system consists of a large group of nerves of the autonomic nervous system. These nerves are called efferent, since they carry impulses away from the central nervous system.
Some of the autonomic nerves are called sympathetic nerves and others are called parasympathetic nerves.
Ganglia, which are collections of nerve tissue outside the brain and spinal glands, and plexuses, which are larger networks of nerves, are prevalent in the autonomic nervous system. [2, c. 124–125]
NB! sing. ganglion — plur. ganglia [from Latin]
NB! sing. plexus — plur. plexuses [from Latin]
Developing Questions: Something to Think about
1.What do cranial nerves carry impulses between?
2.What do spinal nerves carry messages between?
3.What nerves carry impulses from the CNS to the glands, heart, blood vessels, and the involuntary muscles?
4.What nerves are involved with sensations of smell, taste, sight, hearing?
5.What nerves are involved with muscle movements?
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6.What nerves stimulate the body in times of stress and crisis, i.e. increase heart rate and blood pressure, dilate airways, stimulate the adrenal glands?
7.What nerves normally act as a balance for the sympathetic nerves?
Task
Compare the following Latin terms with the corresponding English ones:
systema nervosum; encephalon; medulla spinalis; nervus; nervi spinales; nervi craniales
Text 2. Neurons and Nerves
A neuron is an individual nerve cell, a microscopic structure. Impulses are passed along the parts of a nerve cell in a definite manner and direction.
A stimulus begins a wave of excitability in the receptive branching fibers of the neuron which are called dendrites.
NB! sing. stimulus — plur. stimuli [from Latin]
The nervous impulse wave, traveling in only one direction, next reaches the cell body. Extending from the cell body is the axon which carries the impulse away from the cell body. Axons may be covered with a fatty tissue sheath called a myelin sheath.
The nervous impulse passes through the axon to leave the cell via the terminal end fibers of the neuron. The space where the nervous impulse jumps from one neuron to another is called the synapse.
Peripheral nerves which carry impulses to the brain and spinal cord from stimulus receptors are called afferent nerves; those which carry impulses from the CNS to organs which produce responses are called efferent nerves.
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The interstitial tissue of the nervous system consists of cells called neuroglia. These cells are supportive and connective in function, as well as phagocytic. There are three types of neuroglial cells: astrocytes, microglia, oligodendroglia. [2, c. 125–127]
Tasks
1.Compare the following Latin terms with the corresponding English ones:
nervi afferentes; nervi efferentes
2.Form the singular number form from the following plural
nouns:
neuroglia; astroglia; microglia; oligodendroglia
Developing Questions: Something to Think about
1.Why are some parts of the spinal cord, the brain, and most peripheral nerves called white matter? [clues: myelin sheath; white appearance]
2.Why is the gray matter of the brain and spinal cord referrred to as gray? [clues: collections of cell bodies and dendrites; gray appearance; myelin sheath; not to cover]
3.Is a neuron a microscopic structure or a macroscopic one?
4.Is a nerve able to be seen with the naked eye?
5.What stimulus receptors do you know?
6.What organs which produce responses do you know?
7.Do neuroglial cells transmit impulses?
8.Which neuroglial cells are starlike?
9.Which neuroglial cells are very small?
10.Find out what is the function of each of the neuroglial cell type. [clues: transporting; phagocytes; function is unknown]
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Text 3. The Brain
The brain is the primary center for regulating and coordinating body activities. It has many different parts, all of which control different aspects of body functions.
The largest part of the brain is the cerebrum. The outer nervous tissue of the cerebrum, known as the cerebral cortex, is arranged in folds to form elevated portions known as convolutions [also called gyri] and depressions or grooves known as fissures [also called sulci].
The cerebrum has many functions. All thought, judgment, memory, association, and discrimination take place within it.
Within the middle region of the cerebrum are spaces, called ventricles. They contain a fluid which flows throughout the brain and around the spinal cord. This fluid is called cerebrospinal fluid and has a protective function.
Two other parts of the brain, the thalamus and hypothalamus, are below the cerebrum in the interbrain and midbrain. The thalamus monitors the sensory stimuli we receive by suppressing some and magnifying others. The hypothalamus contains neurons which control body temperature, sleep, appetite, and emotions.
The following structures lie below the posterior portion of the cerebrum and connect the cerebrum with the spinal cord: the cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata.
The cerebellum is located beneath the posterior portion of the cerebrum. Its function is to aid in coordination and to maintain balance and muscular tone.
The pons contains nerve fiber tracts which connect the cerebrum and cerebellum with the rest of the brain.
The medulla oblongata, located at the base of the brain, contains vital centers which regulate internal activity of the body, such as respiratory center, cardiac center, vasomotor center. [2, c. 127–129]
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Task
Compare the following Latin terms with the corresponding English ones:
gyri cerebri; sulci cerebri; ventriculi cerebri; liquor cerebrospinalis; cerebellum; pons; medulla oblongata
Developing Questions: Something to Think about
1.What does the prefix hypo- mean in the term hypothalamus? Is this term of Latin or Greek origin?
2.What is the literal meaning of the word pons?
3.Why does damage to one side of the brain cause paralysis on the opposite side of the body? [clues: nerve tracts cross over in the pons]
Text 4. Spinal Cord and Meninges
The spinal cord is a column of nervous tissue extending from the medulla oblongata to the second lumbar vertebra within the vertebral column. It ends as the cauda equina, a fan of nerve fibers found below the second lumbar vertebra. It carries all the nerves which affect the limbs and lower part of the body, and is the pathway for impulses going to and from the brain. A cross-section of the spinal cord reveals an inner section of gray matter and an outer region of white matter.
The meninges are three layers of connective tissue membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord.
NB! sing. meninx — plur. meninges [from Latin]
The outermost membrane of the meninges is called the dura mater. It is a thick and tough membrane and contains channels for blood to come into the brain. The second layer around the brain and spinal cord is called the arachnoid membrane. The arachnoid membrane is loosely attached to
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the other meninges by weblike fibers so there is a space for cerebrospinal fluid between the fibers and the third membrane. The third layer of the meninges, closest to the brain and spinal cord, is called the pia mater. It is made of delicate connective tissue with a rich supply of blood vessels. [2, c. 129–130]
Task
Compare the following Latin terms with the corresponding English ones:
vertebra lumbalis; columna vertebralis; cauda equina; dura mater; arachnoidea; pia mater
Developing Questions: Something to Think about
1.What is the literal meaning of the term cauda equina?
2.What does gray matter contain? [clues: cell bodies; dendrites of peripheral nerves]
3.What does white matter contain? [clues: nerve fiber tracts with myelin sheaths]
4.What is the literal meaning of the term dura mater?
5.What is the literal meaning of the word arachnoid?
6.What is the literal meaning of the term pia mater?
Review
Give the terms for the following definitions:
-nerve cell;
-thin delicate innermost membrane of the meninges;
-organ which receives a nervous impulse from a stimulus and passes it on to nerves;
-space between nerve cells through which a nervous impulse
travels;
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-nerves carrying impulses between the brain and the head and neck;
-middle spider-like meningeal membrane;
-outermost tough meningeal membrane;
-nerves which only carry impulses away from the brain and spinal cord to glands, muscles, and organs;
-nerves which only carry impulses toward the brain and spinal cord from receptors such as the sense organs;
-network of nerves;
-part of the middle region of the brain below the thalamus and controlling sleep, temperature, and water balance;
-knot of nerve cell bodies outside the brain and spinal cord;
-interstitial connective tissue of the nervous system;
-posterior part of the brain which controls coordination of muscle movement and balance;
-largest part of the brain which controls voluntary movement, vision, speech, taste, hearing and so forth;
-part of the brain, superior to the medulla oblongata, where nerve fiber tracts cross;
-protective membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord;
-part of the middle region of the brain which relays impulses from receptors like sense organs to other parts of the brain.
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CHAPTER 5. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Text 1. Blood Vessels
There are three major types of blood vessels in the body. These are called arteries, veins, and capillaries.
Arteries are the large blood vessels that lead blood away from the heart. Their walls are made of connective tissue, elastic fibers, and an innermost layer of epithelial cells. Arteries must be strong enough to withstand the high pressure of the pumping action of the heart. Their elastic walls allow them to expand as the heartbeat forces blood into the arterial system throughout the body. Smaller branches of arteries are called arterioles. Arterioles are thinner than arteries and carry the blood to the tiniest of blood vessels, the capillaries.
Capillaries have walls which are only one epithelial cell in thickness. These delicate, microscopic vessels carry nutrient-rich, oxygenated blood from the arteries and arterioles to the body cells. Their walls are thin enough to allow passage of oxygen and nutrients out of the bloodstream and into the tissue fluid surrounding the cells. Once inside the cells, the nutrients are burned in the presence of oxygen to release needed energy within the cell. At the same time, waste products such as carbon dioxide and water pass out of the cells and into the thin-walled capillaries. The waste-filled blood then flows back to the heart in small veins called venules which branch to form larger vessels called veins.
Veins are thinner-walled than arteries. They conduct waste-filled blood toward the heart from the tissues. Veins have little elastic tissue and less connective tissue than arteries, and blood pressure in veins is extremely low as compared to pressure in arteries. In order to keep blood moving back toward the heart, veins have valves which prevent the
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backflow of blood and keep the blood moving in one direction. Muscular action also helps the movement of blood in veins. [2, c. 141–142]
Task
Compare the following Latin terms with the corresponding English ones:
systema cardiovasculare; vas sanguineum; sanguis; arteria; arteriola; vena; venula
Developing Questions: Something to Think about
1.What is called catabolism?
2.What vessels carry both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood?
Text 2. Circulation of Blood
Arteries, arterioles, veins, venules, and capillaries, together with the heart, form a circulatory system for the flow of blood.
Deoxygenated blood flows through two large veins, the venae cavae, on its way from the tissue capillaries to the heart.
NB! sing. vena cava — plur. venae cavae [from Latin]
At the tissue capillaries oxygen leaves the blood and enters the body
cells.
Deoxygenated blood enters the right side of the heart and travels through that side and into the pulmonary artery, a vessel which divides in two, one branch leading to the left lung, the other to the right lung. The arteries continue dividing and subdividing within the lungs, forming smaller and smaller vessels and finally reaching the lung capillaries. The pulmonary artery is the only artery in the body which carries deoxygenated blood.
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