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IoT applicaWLRQV DOORZ UHWDLO FRPSDQLHV WR PDQDJH LQYHQWRU\ LPSURYH FXVWRP

HU H[SHULHQFH RSWLPL]H VXSSO\ FKDLQ DQG UHGXFH RSHUDWLRQDO FRVWV )RU H[DPSOH smart shelves fitted with weight sensors can collect RFID-based information and send the data to the IoT platform to automatically monitor inventory and trigger alerts if items are running low. Beacons can push targeted offers and promotions to customers to provide an engaging experience.

Public Sector

The benefits of IoT in the public sector and other service-related environments are similarly wide-UDQJLQJ )RU H[DPSOH JRYHUQPHQW-owned utilities can use IoTbased applications to notify their users of mass outages and even of smaller interruptions of wateU SRZHU RU VHZHU VHUYLFHV ,R7 DSSOLcations can collect data concerning the scope of an outage and deploy resources to help utilities recover from outages with greater speed.

Healthcare

IoT asset monitoring provides multiple benefits to the healthcare industry. 'RFWRUV QXUVHV DQG Rrderlies often need to know the exact location of patientassistance assets such as wheelchairs. When a hospital’s wheelchairs are equipped ZLWK ,R7 VHQVRUV WKH\ FDn be tracked from the IoT asset-monitoring application so that anyone looking for one can quickly find the nearest available wheelchair. Many hospital assets can be tracked this way to ensure proper usage as well as financial accounting for the physical assets in each department.

General Safety Across All Industries

In addition to tracking physLFDO DVVHWV ,R7 FDQ EH XVHG to improve worker safe-

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FKHPLFDO DQG SRZHU SODQWV IRU H[DPSOH QHHG WR NQRZ DERXW WKH RFFXUUHQFH RI D KD] ardous event that might affect them. When they are connected to IoT sensor–based DSSOLFDWLRQV WKH\ FDQ EH QRWLfied of accidents or rescued from them as swiftly as possible. IoT applications are also used for wearables that can monitor human health and environmental conditions. Not only do these types of applications help people better

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Dall-E is a generative AI technology that enables users to create new images with text to graphics promptV )XQFWLRQDOO\ 'DOO-E is a neural network and is able to

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generate entirely new images in any number of different styles as specified by the user's prompts.

The name 'DOO-( is an homage to the two different core themes of the technolRJ\ KLQWLQJ DW WKH JRDO RI PHUJing art and AI technology. The first part ('$//) is intended to be evocative of famous Spanish surrHDO DUWLVW 6DOYDGRU 'DOL ZKLOH WKe second part (() is related to the fictional Disney robot :DOO-( The combination of the two names reflects the abstract and somewhat surreal illustrative power of the

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Dall-E was developed by AI vendor OpenAI and first launched in January 2021. The technology uses deep learning models alongside the GPT-3 large language model as a base to understand natural language user prompts and generate new images.

Dall-E works by using a number of technologies including natural language processing (1/3 ODUJH ODQJXDJH PRGHOV (//Ms) and diffusion processing.

Dall-E also makes use of a transformer neural network – also simply referred to as a WUDQVIRUPHU – to enable the model to create and understand connections between different concepts.

To help prove that the Dall-E model was able to FRUUHFWO\ JHQHUDWH LPDJHV 2SHQ $, DOVR EXLOW WKH &/,3 &RQWUDVWLYH /DQJXDJH-Image Pre-training) moGHO which was trained on 400 million labeled images. OpenA, XVHG &/,3 WR KHOS HYDOX ate Dall-(V RXWSXW E\ DQDO\]LQJ ZKich caption is most suitable for a generated image.

Dall-E use cases $V D JHQHUDWLYH $, WHFKQRORJ\ WKHUH DUH D ZLGH UDQJH RI SRVVLEOH Xse cases for

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1.Creative inspiration. The technology can be used to help inspire a creative person to create something new. It can also be used as a supplement to an existing creative process.

2.Entertainment. Images created by Dall-E could potentially be used in books or games. Dall-E can go beyond the capabilities of traditionally computer-generated imagery (CGI) in that the prompt system is easier to use to create graphics.

3.Education. Teachers and educators use Dall-E to generate images to explain different concepts.

4.Advertising and marketing. The ability to create entirely unique and novel images can be useful for advertising and marketing.

5.Product design. A product designer can use Dall-( WR YLVXDOL]H VRPHWKLQJ

new MXVW ZLWK WKH XVH RI WH[W LQ DQ DSSURDFK WKDW FDQ EH VLJQLILFDQWO\ IDVWHU WKDQ XV ing traditional computer-aided design (CAD) technologies.

6. Art. Dall-E can be used by anyone to create new art to be enjoyed and even displayed.

Fashion design. $V D VXSSOHPHQW WR H[LVWLQJ WRROV 'DOO-E can potentially be useful to help fashion designers come up with new items.

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Voice assistants come in somewhat small packages and can perform a variety of actions after hearing a wake word or command. They can turn RQ OLJKWV DQVZHU questioQV SOD\ PXVLF SODFH RQOLQH RUGHUV HWF

Many devices we uVH HYHU\ GD\ XWLOL]H YRLFH DVVLVWDQWV They’re on our smartphones and inside smart speakers in our homes. Many mobile apps and operat-

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Technology behind Voice Assistants

Voice assistants use Artificial Intelligence and Voice recognition to accurately and efficiently deliver the result that the user is looking for. While it may seem simple WR DVN D FRPSXWHU WR VHW D WLPHU WKH technology behind it is fascinating.

Voice Recognition

Voice recognition works by taking an analog signal from a users voice and turning it into a digital siJQDO $IWHU GRLQJ WKLV WKH FRPSXWHU Wakes the digital signal and attempts to match it up to words DQG SKUDVHV WR UHFRJQL]H WKH XVHUV LQWHQW 7R GR WKLV WKH FRPSXWHU UHTXLUHV D GDWDEDVH RI SUH-existing words and syllables in a given language to be able to closely match the digital signal with. Checking the input signal with this database is known as pattern recognition DQG is the primary force behind voice recognition.

Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence is using machines to simulate and replicate human intelligence.

,Q $ODn Turing published his paper “Computing Machinery and Intelli-

JHQFH´ WKDW ILUVW DVNHG WKH TXHVWLRQ FDQ PDFKLQHV WKLQN" $ODQ 7XULQJ WKHQ ZHQW RQ WR develop the 7XULQJ 7HVW D PHWKRG RI HYDOXDWLQg a computer to test its capability of thinking like a human. There were four approaFKHV ODWHU GHYHORSHG WKDW GHILQHG $,

7KLQNLQJ KXPDQO\ UDWLRQDOO\ DQG DFWLQJ KXPDQO\ UDWLRQDOO\ :KLOH WKH ILUVW WZR GHDO with reasoning WKH VHFRQG WZR GHDO ZLWK DFWXDO Eehavior. Modern AI is typically seen as a computer system designed to accomplish tasks that typically require human interaction. These systems can improve upon themselves using a process known as machine learning.

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Machine learning refers to the subset of Artificial Intelligence where programs are created without the use of human coders manually creating the program. Instead

RI ZULWLQJ RXW WKH FRPSOHWH SURJUDP RQ WKHLU RZQ SURgrammers gives the AI “patterns” to UHFRJQL]H DQG OHDUQ IURP and then gives the AI large amounts of data to sift through and study. So instead of having specifLF UXOHV WR DELGH E\ WKH $, VHDUFKHV IRU patterns within this data and uses it to improve its already existing functions. One way machine learning can be helSIXO IRU 9RLFH $, LV E\ IHHGLQJ WKH DOJRULWKP KRXUV of speech from various accents and dialects.

:KLOH WUDGLWLRQDO SURJUDPV UHTXLUHV DQ LQSXW DQG UXOHV WR GHYHORS DQ RXWSXW machine learning tools are given an input and an output and use that to create the program itself. There are two approaches to machine learQLQJ VXSHUYLVHG OHDUQLQJ and unsupervisHG OHDUQLQJ ,Q VXSHUYLVHG OHDUQLQJ WKH PRGHO LV JLYHQ GDWD WKDW LV DO UHDG\ SDUWO\ ODEHOHG WKLV means some of the data given will be already tagged with the FRUUHFW DQVZHU 7KLV KHOSV JXLGH WKH PRGHO LQWR FDWHJRUL]ing the rest of the data and developing D FRUUHFW DOJRULWKP ,Q XQVXSHUYLVHG OHDUQLQJ QRQH RI WKH GDWD LV OD EHOHG VR LW LV XS WR WKH PRdel to find the pattern correctly. One of the reasons this is very useful is because it allows the model to find patterns that the creators might have never foXQG RQ WKHLU RZQ EXW WKH GDWD LV PXFK PRUH XQSUHGLFWDEOH

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Big data is data that contains greater variety arriving in increasing volumes and with ever-higher velocity. This is known as the three Vs.

3XW VLPSO\ ELJ GDWD LV ODUJHU PRUH FRPSOH[ GDWD VHWV HVSHFLDOO\ IURP QHZ GD ta sources. These data sets are so voluminous that traditional data processing software just can’t manage them. But these massive volumes of data can be used to address business problems you wouldn’t have been able to tackle before.

The Three Vs of Big Data Volume

7KH DPRXQW RI GDWD PDWWHUV :LWK ELJ GDWD \RX’ll have to process high vol-

umes of low-GHQVLW\ XQVWUXFWXUHG GDWD 7KLV FDQ EH GDWD RI XQNQRZQ YDOXH VXFK DV Twitter GDWD IHHGV FOLFNVWUHDPV RQ D ZHESDJH RU D PRELOH DSS RU VHQVRU-enabled HTXLSPHQW )RU VRPH RUJDQL]DWLRQV WKLV PLJKW EH WHQV RI WHUDE\Wes of data. For oth-

HUV LW PD\ EH KXndreds of petabytes. Velocity

Velocity is the fast rate at which data is received and (perhaps) acted on. NorPDOO\ WKH KLJhest velocity of data streams directly into memory versus being written to disk. Some internet-enabled smart products operate in real time or near real time and will require real-time evaluation and action.

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Variety

Variety refers to the many types of data that are available. Traditional data types were structured and fit neatly in a relational dataEDVH :LWK WKH ULVH RI ELJ GDWD data comes in new unstructured data types. Unstructured and semistructured data

W\SHV VXFK DV WH[W DXGLR DQG YLGHR UHTXLUH additional preprocessing to derive meaning and support metadata.

Two more Vs have emerged over thH SDVW IHZ \HDUV YDOXH DQG YHUDFLW\.

Data has intrinsic value. But it’s of no use until that value is discovered. Equal- l\ LPSRUWDQW +RZ WUXWKIXO LV \RXU GDWa—and how much can you rely on it?

7RGD\ ELJ GDWD KDV EHFRPH FDSLWDO 7KLQN RI VRPH RI WKH ZRUOG¶s biggest tech companies. A large part of the value they offeU FRPHV IURP WKHLU GDWD ZKLFK WKH\¶UH FRQVWDQWO\ DQDO\]LQJ to produce more efficiency and develop new products.

Recent technological breakthroughs have exponentially reduced the cost of data stoUDJH DQG FRPSXWH PDNLQJ LW HDVLHU Dnd less expensive to store more data than ever before. With an increased volume of big data now cheaper and more accessiblH you can make more accurate and precise business decisions.

Finding value in big data isn’t only DERXW DQDO\]LQJ LW ZKLFK LV D ZKROe other benefit). It’s an entire discovery process that requireV LQVLJKWIXO DQDO\VWV business us-

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Although the concept of big daWD LWVHOI LV UHODWLYHO\ QHZ WKH RULJLQV RI ODUJH GD ta sets JR EDFN WR WKH V DQG V ZKHQ WKH ZRUOG RI GDWD ZDV MXVW JHWWLQJ VWDUWHG with the first data centers and the development of the relational database.

$URXQG SHRSOH EHJDQ WR UHDOL]H MXVW how much data users generated through )DFHERRN <RX7XEH DQd other online services. Hadoop (an open-source

IUDPHZRUN FUHDWHG VSHFLILFDOO\ WR VWRUH DQG DQDO\]H ELJ GDWD VHWV ZDV GHYHORSHG WKDW sDPH \HDU 1R64/ DOVR EHJDQ WR gain popularity during this time.

The development of open-VRXUFH IUDPHZRUNV VXFK DV +DGRRS (and more re-

FHQWO\ 6SDUN ZDV HVVHQWLDO IRU WKH JURZWK RI ELJ GDWD EHFDXVH WKH\ PDNH ELJ GDWD easier to work with and cheaper to storH ,Q WKH \HDUV VLQFH WKHQ WKH YROXme of big data has skyrocketed. Users are still generating huge amounts of data—but it’s not just humans who are doing it.

With the advent of the Internet of Things (IoT more objects and devices are connected to the inWHUQHW JDWKHULQJ GDWD RQ FXVWomer usage patterns and product performance. The emergence of machine learning has produced still more data.

:KLOH ELJ GDWD KDV FRPH IDU LWV XVHIXOQHVV LV RQO\ MXVW EHJLQQLQJ &ORXG FRP puting has expanded big data possibilities even further. The cloud offers truly elastic VFDODELOLW\ where developers can simply spin up ad hoc clusters to test a subset of data.

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Big data makes it possible for you to gain more complete answers because you have more information.

More complete answers mean more confidence in the data—which means a completely different approach to tackling problems.

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7KH FDOFXODWLQJ HQJLQHV RI (QJOLVK PDWKHPDWLFLDQ &KDUOHV %DEEDJH –DUH DPRQJ WKH PRVW FHOHEUDWHG LFRQV Ln the prehistory of computing. Babbage’s Difference Engine No.1 was the first successful automatic calculator and remains one of the finest examples of precision engineering of the time. Babbage is sometimes referred to as "father of computing." The International Charles Babbage Society (later the Charles Babbage Institute) took his name to honor his intellectual contributions and their relation to modern computers.

&KDUOHV %DEEDJH ZDV ERUQ LQ /RQGRQ RQ 'HFHPEHU WKH VRQ RI %HQ MDPLQ %DEEDJH D /RQGon banker. As a youth Babbage was his own instructor in algebUD RI ZKLFK KH ZDV SDVVLRQDWHO\ IRQG and was well read in the continental mathematics of his day 8SRQ HQWHULQJ 7ULQLW\ &ROOHJH &DPEULGJH LQ KH IRXQG himself far in advance of his tutors in mathematics. Babbage co-founded the Analytical Society for promoting continental mathematics and reforming the mathematics of Newton then taught at the university.

,Q KLV WZHQWLHV %DEEDJH ZRUNHG DV D PDWKHPDWLFLDQ SULQFLSDOO\ LQ WKH FDOFXOXV of functions. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1816 and played a prominent part in the foundation of the Astronomical Society (later Royal Astronomical Society) in 1820. It was about this time that Babbage first acquired the interest in calculating machinery that became his consuming passion for the remainder of his life.

In 1821 Babbage invented the Difference Engine to compile mathematical ta-

EOHV 2Q FRPSOHWLQJ LW LQ KH FRQFHLYHG WKH LGHD RI D EHWWHU PDFKLQH WKDW FRXOG perform not just one mathematical task but any kind of calculation.

This was the AnDO\WLFDO (QJLQH ZKLFK ZDV LQWHnded as a general symERO PDQLSXODWRU DQG KDG VRPH RI WKH FKaracteristics of today’s computers.

8QIRUWXQDWHO\ OLWWOH UHPDLQV RI %DEEDJHV SURWRW\SH FRPSXWLQg machines. Critical tolerances required by his machines exceeded the level of technology available at

WKH WLPH $QG WKough Babbage’s work ZDV IRUPDOO\ UHFRJQL]HG E\ UHVSHFWHG VFLHQ WLILF LQVWLWXWLRQV WKH %ULWLVK JRYHUQPHQW VXVSHQGHG IXQGLQJ IRU KLV 'LIIHrence Engine LQ DQG DIWHU DQ DJRQL]LQJ ZDLWLQJ SHULRG ended the project in 1842.

There remain only fragments of %DEEDJHV SURWRW\SH 'LIIHUHQFH (QJLQH and though he devoted most of his time and large fortune towards construction of his Analytical EQJLQH DIWHU KH QHYHU VXFFHHGHG in completing any of his several de-

VLJQV IRU LW *HRUJH 6FKHXW] D 6ZHGLVK SULQWHU successfully constructed a machine based on the designs for Babbage's Difference Engine in 1854. This machine printed

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PDWKHPDWLFDO DVWronomical and actuarial tables with XQSUHFHGHQWHG DFFXUDF\ Dnd was used by the British and American governments.

Though Babbage's work was continued by his sRQ +HQU\ 3UHYRVW %DEEDJH DI

WHU KLV GHDWK LQ WKH $QDO\WLFDO (QJLQH ZDV QHYHU VXFFHVVIXOO\ FRPSOHWHG DQG ran only a few "programs" with embarrassingly obvious errors.

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Advancement of Science and the Statistical Society (later Royal Statistical Society). He also attempted to reform the sFLHQWLILF RUJDQL]DWLRns of the period while calling upon government and society to give more money and prestige to scientific endeavor.

Throughout his life Babbage worked in many intellectual fields typical of his day and made contributions that would have assured his fame irrespective of the Difference and Analytical Engines.

'HVSLWH KLV PDQ\ DFKLHYHPHQWV WKH IDLOXUH WR FRQVWUXFW KLV FDOFXODWLQJ PD FKLQHV DQd in particular the failure of the government to support his ZRUN OHIW %DE bage in his declining years a disappointed and embittered man. He died at his home

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Quantum computing is a new generation of technology that involves a type of computer 158 million times faster than the most sophisticated supercomputer we have in the world today. It is a device so powerful that it could do in four minutes what it would take a traditional supercompXWHU \HDUV WR accomplish.

)RU GHFDGHV RXU computers have all been built around the same design. Whether it is tKH KXJH PDFKLQHV DW 1$6$ or your laptop DW KRPH WKH\ DUH DOO HVVHQ WLDOO\ MXVW JORULILHG FDOFXODWRUV EXW FUXFLDOO\ WKH\ FDQ RQO\ GR RQH WKLQJ DW a time.

The key to the way all computers work is that they process and store information made of binary digits FDOOHG ELWV 7KHVH ELWV RQO\ KDYH WZR SRVVLEOH YDOXHV D RQH RU D ]HUR ,W LV these numbers that create binary codH ZKLFK D FRPSXWHU QHHGV to read in order to carry out a specific task.

Instead of ELWV TXDQWXP FRPSXWHUV XVH VRPHWKLQJ FDOOHG TXDQWXP ELWV TXELWV

IRU VKRUW :KLOH D WUDGLWLRQDO ELW FDQ RQO\ EH D RQH RU D ]HUR D TXELW FDQ EH D RQH D ]HUR RU LW FDQ Ee both at the same time. This means that a quantum computer does not have to wait for one process to end before it can begiQ DQRWKHU LW FDQ GR WKHP DW WKH same time.

Imagine you had lots of doors which were all locked e[FHSW IRU RQH DQG \RX needed to find out which one was open. A traditional computer would keep trying

HDFK GRRU RQH DIWHU WKH RWKHU XQWLO it found the one which was unlocked. It might WDNH ILYH PLQXWHV LW PLJKW WDNH D PLOOLRQ \HDUV GHSHQGLQJ RQ KRZ PDny doors there

were. But a quantum computer could try all the doors at once. This is what makes them so much faster.

Standard computers can do what they are told well enough if they are fed the right computer programme by a human. But when it comes to prHGLFWLQJ WKLQJV WKH\ are not so smart. This is why the weather forecast is not always accurate. There are

WRR PDQ\ YDULDEOHV WRR PDQ\ WKLQJV FKDQJLQJ WRR TXLFNO\ IRU Dny conventional computer to keep up.

Because of their limitatLRQV WKHUH DUH VRPH FRPSXWDWLRQV ZKLFh an ordinary computeU PD\ QHYHU EH DEOH WR VROYH RU LW PLJht take literally a billion years. Not much good if you need a quick prediction or piece of analysis.

But a quantum computer is so fDVW DOPRVW LQILQLWHO\ VR WKDW LW FRXOG UHVSRQG WR changing information quickly and examine a limitless number of outcomes and permutations simultaneously.

Quantum computers are also relatively small because they do not rely on transistors like traditional machines. They also consume comparatively less power PHDQ ing they could in theory be better for the environment.

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Operating systems that create a link between users and the applications form the core of computer systems. An OS dissociates the programs from the hardware and simplifies UHVRXUFH PDQDJHPHQW /HW XV ORRN DW WKH GLIIHUHQW W\SHV RI RSHUDWLQJ V\V tems and know how they differ from one another.

An operating system is a software component of a computer system that is responsible for the management of various activities of the computer and the sharing of computer resources.

It hosts several applications that run on a computer and handles the operations of computer hardware. Users and application programs access the services offered by the operDWLQJ V\VWHPV E\ PHDQV RI V\VWHP FDOOV and application programming interfaces. Users interact with a computer operating system WKURXJK &RPPDQG /LQH ,QWHU IDFHV &/,V RU *UDSKLFDl User Interfaces knRZQ DV *8,V ,Q VKRUW DQ RSHUDWLQJ V\V tem enables user interaction with computer systems by acting as an interface between users or application programs and the computer hardware. Here is an overview of the different types of operating systems.

Real-time Operating System

It is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing real-time applications. Real-time operDWLQJ V\VWHPV RIWHQ XVH VSHFLDOL]HG scheduling algorithms so that they can achieve a deterministic nature of behavior. The main object of real-time operating systems is their quick and predictable response to events. They either have an

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event-driven or a time-sharing design. An event-driven system switches between tasks based of their priorities while time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts.

Multi-user and Single-user Operating Systems

Computer operating systems of this type allow multiple users to access a computer system simultaneously. Time-sharing systems can be classified as multi-user systems as they enable a multiple user access to a computer through time sharing. Single-XVHU RSHUDWLQJ V\VWHPV DV RSSRVHG WR D PXOWL-user RSHUDWLQJ V\VWHP DUH XVD ble by only one user at a time. Being able to have multiple accounts on a Windows operating system does not make it a multi-user sysWHP 5DWKHU RQO\ WKH QHWZRUN DG ministrator is the real user. But for a Unix-like operating system LW LV SRVVLEOH IRU WZR users to login at a time and this capability of the OS makes it a multi-user operating system.

Multi-tasking and Single-tasking Operating Systems

:KHQ D VLQJOH SURJUDP LV DOORZHG WR UXQ DW D WLPH WKH V\VWHP LV JURXSHG XQGHU the single-WDVNLQJ V\VWHP FDWHJRU\ ZKLOe in case the operating system allows for execution of multiple WDVNV DW D WLPH LW is classified as a multi-tasking operating system. Multi-WDVNLQJ FDQ EH RI WZR W\SHV QDPHO\ SUH-emptive or co-operative. In preemptive PXOWLWDVNLQJ WKH RSHUDWLQJ V\VWHP slices the CPU time and dedicates one slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems such as 6RODULV DQG /LQX[ support pre-emptive multitasking. If you are aware of the multi-threading terminolo- J\ \RX FDQ FRQVider this type of multi-tasking as like interleaved multi-threading. Cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to give time to the other processes in a defined manner. This kind of multi-tasking is like the idea of block multi-threading in which one thread runs till it is blocked by some other event.

06 :LQGRZV SULRU WR :LQGRZV XVHG WR VXSSRUW FRRSerative multitasking.

Distributed Operating System

An operating system that manages a group of independent computers and makes them appear to be a single computer is known as a distributed operating system. The development of networked computers that could be linked and made to communicate wLWK HDFK RWKHU JDYH ULVH WR GLVWULEXWHG FRPSXWLQJ 'LVWULEXWHG FRPSX tations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a group work in cooperDWLRQ WKH\ PDNH D GLVWULEXWHG V\VWHP

Embedded System

The operating systems designed for being used in embedded computer systems are known as embedded operating systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy. They can operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient E\ GHVLJQ :LQGRZV &( FreeBSD and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems.

Mobile Operating System

Though not a functionally distinct kind oI RSHUDWLQJ V\VWHP PRELOH 26 LV GHIL nitely an important mention in the list of operating system types. A mobile OS controls a mobile device and its design supports wireless communication and mobile applications. It has built-in support for mobile multimedia formats. Tablet PCs and smartphones run on mobile operating systems.

Batch Processing and Interactive Systems

Batch processing refers to execution of computer programs in 'batches' without manual intervention. In batch processiQJ V\VWHPV SURJUDPV DUH FROOHFWHG JURXSHG and processed on a later date. There is no prompting the user for inputs as input data are collected in advance for future processing. Input data are collected and processed in EDWFKHV KHQFH WKH QDPH EDWFK SURFHVVLQJ ,%0V ] 26 KDV EDtch processing capabilities. As againsW WKLV LQWHUDFWLYH operating requires user intervention. The process cannot be executed in the user's absence.

Online and Offline Processing

In online proceVVLQJ RI GDWD WKH XVHU UHPDLQV LQ contact with the computer and processes are executed under control of the computer's central processing unit. When

SURFHVVHV DUH QRW H[HFXWHG XQGHU GLUHFW FRQWURO RI WKH &38 WKH SURFHVVLQJ LV UHIHUUHG WR DV RIIOLQH /HWs take the example of batch processLQJ +HUH WKH EDWFKLQJ Rr grouping of data can be done without user and CPU intervHQWLRQ LW FDQ EH GRQH RIIOLQH

But the DFWXDO SURFHVV H[HFXWLRQ PD\ KDSSHQ XQGHU GLUHFW FRQWURO RI WKH SURFHVVRU that is online.

Operating systems contribute to simplifying human interaction with the computer hardware. They are responsible for linking application programs with the hard-

ZDUH WKXV DFKLHYLQJ HDV\ XVHU DFFHVV WR FRPSXWHUV (YHU LPDJLQHG D FRPSXWHU ZLWK out an OS? It wouldn't be so user-friendly then!

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New technologies create new criminal opportunities but few new types of crime. What distinguishes cybercrime from traditional criminal activity? Obvious- O\ Rne difference is the use of the digital computer EXW WHFKQRORJ\ DORne is insufficient for any distinction that might exist between different realms of criminal activity. Criminals do noW QHHG D FRPSXWHU WR FRPPLW IUDXG VWHDO DQ LGHQWLW\ RU YLRODWH VRPH one’s privacy. All those activities existed before the “cyber” prefix became ubiquitous &\EHUFULPH HVSHFLDOO\ LQYROYLQJ WKH ,QWHUQHW UHSUesents an extension of existing criminal behaviour alongside some novel illegal activities.