The World of Computers and IT. Учебное пособие

3.Everybody ___ (to hear) of Bill Gates WKH IRXQGHU RI 0LFURVRIW DQG RQH RI the richest men in history.

4.Steve Jobs with 6WHYH :R]QLDN ____ (to start) Apple computers.

5.Charles Babbage ____ (to be) an English mathematician and analytical philosopher.

6.George Boole ___ (to describe) logical relations using mathematical sym-

bols.

Vannevar Bush first _____ (to propose) DQ LGHD LQ KH FDOOHG PHPH[ which we now know as 'hypertext'.

8.Alan Mathison Turing ____ (to invent) the Turing Test ZKLFK LV D ZD\ WR find out if a computer is acting like a machine or a human.

Edgar Frank Codd ____ (to know) for inventing the "relational" model for GDWDEDVHV D PRdel which is still in use today.

10.)2575$1 BBBB WR LQYHQW E\ DQ $PHULFDQ FRPSXWHU VFLHQWLVW John Warner Backus.

11.Dutchman Guido van Rossum ___ (to write) the Python programming lan-

guage.

12.The most widely used operating system in the world ____ (to be) is Microsoft Windows.

13. Unix ____ (to FUHDWH E\ .HQ 7KRPSVRQ DQG KLV WHDP DW $7 7 LQ

14./LQX[ ______ (to write) by /LQXV 7RUYDOGV LQ

15.Intel ______ (to start) by several people who are now legends in the comSXWHU ZRUOG LQFOXGLQJ Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore.

16.Intel _____ (to expand) UDSLGO\ GXULQJ WKH V DQG V.

Ralph Baer ______ (to invent) the first home video game console.

18. Richard Stallman _____ (to found) the free software movement called

GNU.

Tim Berners-/HH _____ (to create) the basis for the World Wide Web.

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Almost everyone uses computers these days for everything from shopping to working to playing games.

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A search engine is a program that 1. _____ the Internet and finds web pages for the user based on the keywords 2. _____ you submit.

The very popular search engine calleG *RRJOH BBBBBB E\ /DUU\ 3DJH DQG

Sergey Brin.

Google 4. _____ after a googol - the name for the number 1 followed by 100

]HURV – found in the book 0DWKHPDWLFV DQG WKH ,PDJLQDWLRQ by (GZDUG .DVQHU and

JaPHV 1HZPDQ. To Google's founders the name represents the immense amount of information that a search engine 5. _____ process.

In 1 /DUU\ 3DJH DQG 6HUJH\ %ULQ BBBBB DW 6WDnford University as graduDWH VWXGHQWV LQ FRPSXWHU VFLHQFH %\ -DQXDU\ RI they began collaborating on ZULWLQJ BBBBBBB SURJUDP for a search engine dubEHG %DFN5XE QDPHG DIWHU LWV ability to do back link analysis.

1H[W IXHOHG E\ WKH H[FHOOHQW UHYLHZV WKDW %DFN5XE UHFHLYHG /DUU\ 3DJH DQG Sergey Brin began 8. _____ on Google. OSHUDWLQJ RXW RI WKHLU GRUP URRPV WKH\ EXLOW a server QHWZRUN XVLQJ FKHDS XVHG DQG ERUURZHG 3&V

They bought terabytes of disks BBBBB GLVFRXQW SULFHV 7KH\ WULHG BBBB

WKHLU VHDUFK HQJLQH WHFKQRORJ\ KRZHYHU WKH\ FRXOGQ¶W ILQG BBBBB ZKR ZDQWHG their product at an early stage of development. Page and Brin decided 12. _____

*RRJOH VHHN PRUH ILQDQFLQJ LPSURYH WKH SURGXFW and take it to the public themselves.

Google finally became a hot commodity. Co-IRXQGHU RI 6XQ 0LFURV\VWHPV

Andy BechtolsheLP VDLG DIWHU D TXLFN GHPR RI *RRJOH ,QVWHDG RI XV Giscussing all the detailV ZK\ GRQW , MXVW ZULWH \RX D FKHFN"

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After reading activities

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The comprehensive system

0RUH WKDQ % of children who go to state schools in England and Wales go to schools in comprehensive system – a system introduced LQ V &KLOGUHQ JR WR D primary (or first) school at the age of five. Depending on the policy of the local EducationDO $XWKRULW\ WKH\ PD\ JR GLUHFWO\ WR WKH upper school – usually called the comprehensive school – DW WKH DJH RI $OWHUQDWLYHO\ WKH\ may go to a middle school for three or four years before going to the upper school. The comprehensive system is non-selective. This means that all children go from one school to another without takLQJ DQ\ H[DPV DQG ZLWKRXW being selected according to their abilities.

The selective system

,Q VRPH DUHDV RI %ULWDLQ \RX FDQ VWLOO ILQG D GLIIHUHQW DQG ROGHU V\VWHP RI HG ucaWLRQ LQWURGXFHG LQ 7KLV LV D VHOHctive system – children are selected for certain schools according to their ability. All children go to primary school until the age of 11. They then can take an examination called the 11-plus. Those who are successIXO JR WR D JUDPPDU VFKRRO ZKHUH WKH\ UHceive a more academic education. Those who fail the exam go to D VHFRQGDU\ PRGHUQ VFKRRO ZKHUH they receive an education wKLFK LV OHVV DFDGHPLF DQG PRUH LQWHQGHG WR WUDLQ WKHP IRU D MRE ZKHQ WKH\ leave at the age of 16.

The private (independent) system

$ERXW % of children go to private schools. There are three levels of private schools – primary schools (age four to eight) and preparatory (prep) schools (eight

WR $W WKH DJH RI FKLOGUHQ WDNH DQ H[DPLQDWLRQ ,I WKH\ SDVV WKH\ JR WR SXEOLF schooO ZKHUH WKH\ XVXDOO\ UHPain until they are 18. Many prep and most public schools are boarding schools – the children live at the school during the school terms. Be careful – although these schools are called “public´ WKH\ DUH LQ IDFW SULYDWH DQG it can be very expensive to send your child to such a school.

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-schools for boys only

-schools for girls only

-mixed schools – for boys and girls

-voluntary schools – often with religious background – such as Roman Catholic schools.

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Examinations

The public examinations taken by BriWLVK VFKRROFKLOGUHQ DUH

GCSE (the General Certificate of Secondary Education). Pupils usually take their GCSE at the age of 16. Some children take three or fRXU RWKHUV WDNH DV PDQ\ DV ten or eleven.

Pupils who have passed their GCSEs may remain at school for another two years and take their “A” (Advanced) level exams. All grammar and most comprehenVLYH VFKRROV KDYH D VL[WK IRUP ZKHUH pupils study for their “A” levels. Any student who wants to go to university needs to pass at least two or three “A” levels.

6HH KRZ ZHOO \RX KDYH XQGHUVWRRG WKH %ULWLVK HGXFDWLRQDO V\VWHP +HUH DUH WZR \RXQJ %ULWLVK SHRSOH ZLWK GLIIHUHQW HGXFDWLRQDO H[SHULHQFHV )LOO LQ WKH PLVVLQJ ZRUGV WR FRPSOHWH WKH VWRU\ RI WKHLU OLYHV DW VFKRRO 8VH WKH LQIRUPDWLRQ IURP WKH WH[W WR KHOS \Ru.

0\ QDPH¶V 0DJJLH 7XUQEXOO DQG ,¶P VHYHQWHHQ , ILUVW ZHQW WR school when I was 2 …… years old. I left there at the DJH RI QLQH DQG ZHQW RQ to a 3VFKRRO DQG WKHQ WR D FRPSUHKensive. I took ten 4 ….. and I’m in the 5 …… form

…… and left school when I was 11 ……..

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The world is FKDQJLQJ IDVW LI QRW HYHQ IDVWHU WKDQ SUHGLFWHG +HQFH WR stay

FRPSHWLWLYH EXVLQHVVHV PXVW EH UHDG\ WR HPEUDFH ,7 WUDQVIRUPDWLRQ LQ WKHLU RSHUD WLRQV WDS LQWR EXVLQHVV GDWD LQ QHZ ZD\V DQG rethink IT system management. The Future of IT is about removing friction and adding new capabilities to enable operations to be laser-focused on a profitable and digitally enabled business.

,Q WKH XSFRPLQJ \HDUV WKe primary focus of IT will shift to providing strategic business value by delivering innovative productV DQG VHUYLFHV +RZHYHU WUDGLWLRQally VLORHG DQG SURFHVV-driven IT departments are not well suited for the speed and adaptability needed to take advantage of emerging digital business opportunities.

This means that IT and business strategies must be aligned to boost the responsiveness and agility that will be required to compete in the future. This can be accomplished by embracing collaborative management techniques and increasing autonomy among IT staff. Here are 2 of the tech trends that are driving the fourth industrial revolution – trends that will surely alter how we do business and live our lives.

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Artificial Intelligence

With machine learning poised to overtake operations and decision-maNLQJ $, pioneers are realising that legacy data models and infrastructure are designed to sup-

porW KXPDQV QRW PDFKLQHV 7KHUHIRUH WKLV DFWV DV D URDGEORFN WR PDFKLQH OHDUQLQJ VXFFHVV ,Q UHVSRQVH RUJDQLVDWLRQV DUH disrupting the data management value chain by deploying new technRORJLHV )RU LQVWDQFH ORWV RI EXVLQHVses are investing in advanced data FDSWXUH DGYDQFHG DQDO\WLFV WR JLYH PHDQLQJ WR UDQGRP GDWD DQG FORXGbased data stores.

Metaverse

We may have only started hearing of the “metaverse” a few PRQWKV DJR EXW it’s a quickly evolving space that is alUHDG\ SURPLVLQJ WR FKDQJH KRZ ZH ZRUN OLve and play. The metaverse is a blanket term that is used to refer to the integration of 9LUWXDO 5HDOLW\ 95 $XJPHQWHd Reality (AR) and Mixed Reality (MR) into our dai- O\ OLYHV ZLWK early adopters claiming that it will change some industries fundamental-

ly – LQFOXGLQJ UHWDLO VDOHV PDUNHWLQJ WUDLQLQJ HGXFDWLRQ DQG KHDOWK

7H[W :KDW LV $UWLILFLDO ,QWHOOLJHQFH"

IQWHOOLJHQFH LV WKH DELOLW\ WR WKLQN WR LPDJLQH WR FUHDWH PHPRUL]H XQGHUVWDQG UHFRJQL]H SDWWHUQV PDNH FKRLFHV DGDSW WR FKDQJH DQG learn from experience. Artificial intelligence is a human endeavor to create a non-organic machine-EDVHG HQWLW\ that has all the above abilities of natural organic intelligence.

How ZLOO RQH UHFRJQL]H DUWLILFLDO LQWHOOLJHQFH" $FFRUGLQJ WR $ODQ 7XULQJ LI you question a human and DQ DUWLILFLDOO\ LQWHOOLJHQW EHLQJ DQG LI E\ WKHLU DQVZHUV \RX FDQW UHFRJQL]H ZKLFK LV WKH DUWLILFLDO RQH WKHQ \RX KDYH VXFFHHGHG Ln creating artificial intelligence. Initial hopes of computer scientists of creating an artificial intelli-

JHQFH ZHUH GDVKHG KRSHOHVVO\ DV WKH\ UHDOL]HG KRZ PXFK WKH\ KDG XQGHUUDWHG WKH human mind's capabilities!

Approaches to AI

,QLWLDOO\ UHVHDUFKHUV Whought that creating an AI would be simply writing programs for each function an intelligence performs! As they went on witK WKLV WDVN WKH\ UHDOL]HG WKDW WKLV DSSURDFK ZDV WRR VKDOORZ (YHQ VLPSOH IXQFWLRQV OLNH IDFe recogni-

WLRQ VSDFLDO VHQVH SDWWHUQ UHcognition and language comprehension were beyond their programming skills!

They understood that tR FUHDWH DQ $, WKH\ PXVW GHOYH GHHSHU LQWR QDWXUDO LQWHO

OLJHQFH ILUVW 7KH\ WULHG WR XQGHUVWDQG KRZ FRJQLWLRQ FRPSUHKHQVLRQ GHFLVLRQmaking happens in the human mind. They had to understand what understanding really means! Some went into the study of the brain and tried to understand how the network of neurons creates the mind.

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7KXV UHVHDUFKHUV EUDQFKHG LQWR GLIIHUHQW DSSURDFKHV EXW WKH\ KDG WKH VDPH goal of creating intelligent maFKLQHV /HW XV LQWURGXFH RXUVHOves to some of the main approaches to artificial intelligence.

Neural Networks

This is the bottom-up approach. It basically aims at mimicking the structure anG IXQFWLRQLQJ RI WKH KXPDQ EUDLQ WR FUHate intelligent behavior. Researchers are attempting to build a silicon-based electronic network that is modeled on the working

DQG IRUP RI WKH KXPDQ EUDLQ 2XU EUDLQ LV D QHWZRUN RI ELOOLRQV RI QHXURQV HDFK FRQ nected with the other.

At an individual levHO D QHXURQ KDV YHU\ OLWWOH LQWHOOLJHQFH LQ WKH VHQVH that it operates by a simple set of rules FRQGXFWLQJ HOHFWULF VLJQDOV WKURXJK LWV QHWZRUN +RZHYHU WKH FRPELQHG QHWZRUN RI DOO WKHVH QHXURQV FUHDWHV LQWHOOLJHnt behavior that is unrivaled and unsurpDVVHG 6R WKHVH UHVHDUFKers created network of electronic analRJXHV RI D QHXURQ EDVHG RQ %RROHDn logic. Memory was recognL]HG WR EH DQ HOHF tronic signal pattern in a closed neural network.

How the human brain workV LV LW OHDUQV WR UHDOL]H SDWWHUQV DQG remembers them. Similarly WKH neural networks developed can learn patterns and remember. This approach has its limitations due to the scale and complexity of developing an exact replica oI D KXPDQ EUDLQ DV WKH QHXURQV QXPEHU LQ ELOOLRQV &XUUHQWO\ through

VLPXODWLRQ WHFKQLTXHV SHRple create virtual neural networks. This approach has not been able to achieve the goal but there is a very positive progress in the field.

Expert Systems

This is the top-down approach. Instead of starting at the EDVH OHYHO RI QHXURQV by taking advantage of the phenomenal computational power of the modern comput-

HUV IROORZHUV RI WKH H[SHUW V\VWHPV DSSURDFK DUH GHVLJQLQJ intelligent machines that solve problems by deductive logic. It is like the dialectic approach in philosophy.

This is an intensive approach as opposed to the extensive approach in neural

QHWZRUNV $V WKH QDPH H[SHUW V\VWHPV VXJJHVW WKHVH DUH PDFKLQHV GHvoted to solving problems in very specific niche areas. They have total expertise in a specific domain of human thought. Their tools are like those of a detective or sleuth. They are programmed to use statistical analysis and data mining to solve problems. They arrive at a decision through a logical flow developed by answering yes-no questions.

Chess compuWHUV OLNH )ULW] DQG LWV VXFFHVVRUV that beat chess grandmaster Kasparov are examples of expert systems. Chess is known as the drosophila or experimental specimen of artificial intelligence.

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Artificial Intelligence in the form of expert systems and neural networks have applications in every field of human endeavor. They combine precision and computational power wLWK SXUH ORJLF WR VROYH SUREOHPV DQG reduce error in operation. Al-

UHDG\ URERW H[SHUW V\VWHPV DUH WDNLQJ RYHU PDQ\ MREV LQ LQGXVWULHV WKDW DUH GDQJHURXV for or beyond human ability. Some of the applications divided by domains are as fol-

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Heavy Industries and Space

Robotics and cybernetics have taken a leap combined with artificially intelligent expert systems. An entire manufacturing process is now totaOO\ DXWRPDWHG FRQ trolled and maintained by a computer system LQ FDU PDQXIDFWXUH PDFKLQH WRRO SUR duFWLRQ FRPSXWHU FKLS SURGXFWLRQ DQG Dlmost every high-tech process. They carry

RXW GDQJHURXV WDVNV OLNH KDQGOLQJ KD]DUGRXV UDGLRDFWLYH PDWHULDOV 5RERWLF SLlots carry out complex maneuvering techniques of unmanned spacecrafts sent in space. Japan is the leading country in the world in terms of robotics research and use.

Finance

%DQNV XVH LQWHOOLJHQW VRIWZDUH DSSOLFDWLRQV WR VFUHHQ DQG DQDO\]H ILQDQFLDO GD ta. Software programs that can predict trends in the stock market have been created which have been known to beat humans in predictive power.

Computer Science

Researchers in quest of artificial intelligence have created spin offs like dy-

QDPLF SURJUDPPLQJ Rbject-RULHQWHG SURJUDPPLQJ V\PEROLF SURJUDPPLQJ LQWHOOL gent storage management systems and many more such tools. The primary goal of creating an artificial intelligence remains a distant dream but people are getting an idea of the ultimate path which could lead to it.

Aviation

Air lines use expert systems in planes to monitor atmospheric conditions and system status. The plane can be put on auto pilot once a course is set for the destination.

Weather Forecast

Neural networks are used for predicting weather conditions. Previous data is fed to a neural network which learns the pattern and uses that knowledge to predict weather patterns.

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Swarm Intelligence

7KLV LV DQ DSSURDFK WR DV ZHOO DV application of artificial intelligence like a neural network. +HUH SURJUDPPHUV VWXG\ KRZ LQWHOOLJHQce emerges in natural systems like swarms of bees even thougK RQ DQ LQGLYLGXDO OHYHO D EHH MXVW IROORZV VLP ple rules. They study relationships in nature like the prey-predator relationships that give an insight into how intelligence emerges in a swarm or collection from simple rules at an individual level. They develop intelligent systems by creating agent programs that mimic the behavior of these natural systems!

Is artificial Intelligence possible? Can an intelligence like a human mind surpass itself and create its own image? The depth and the powers of the human mind

DUH MXVW EHLQJ WDSSHG :KR NQRZV LW PLJKW EH SRVVLEOH RQO\ WLPH FDQ WHOO (YHQ LI such aQ LQWHOOLJHQFH LV FUHDWHG ZLOO LW VKare our sense of morals aQG MXVWLFH ZLOO LW share our idiosyncrasies? This will be the next step in the evolution of intelligence.

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The Internet of Things (IoT) describes the network of physical objects – “things” – that are ePEHGGHG ZLWK VHQVRUV VRIWZDUH DQG RWKHU WHFKQRORJLHV IRU WKH purpose of connecting and exchanging data with other devices and systems over the internet. These devices range from ordinary household objects to sophisticated indus-

WULDO WRROV :LWK PRUH WKDQ ELOOLRQ FRQQHFWHG ,R7 GHYLFHV WRGD\ H[SHUWV DUH H[SHFW ing this number to grow to 22 billion by 2025.

Why is Internet of Things (IoT) so important?

Over tKH SDVW IHZ \HDUV ,R7 KDV EHFRPH RQH of the most important technologies of the 21st century. Now that we can connect everyday objects – kitchen appli-

DQFHV FDUV WKHUPRVWDWV EDE\ PRQLWRUV – to tKH LQWHUQHW YLD HPEHGGHG GHYLFHV Veamless communication is SRVVLEOH EHWZHHQ SHRSOH SURFHVVHV DQG WKLQJV

By means of low-cost cRPSXWLQJ WKH FORXG ELJ GDWD DQDO\WLFV DQG PRELOH WHFKQRORJLHV SK\VLFDO WKLQJV FDQ VKDUH DQG FROOHFW GDWD ZLWK PLQLPDO KXPan intervention. In this hyperconneFWHG ZRUOG GLJLWDO V\VWHPV FDQ UHFRUG PRQLWRU DQG DGMXVW each interaction between connected things. The physical world meets the digital ZRUOG and they cooperate.

What technologies have made IoT possible?

While the idea of IoT has been in existence fRU D ORQJ WLPH D FROOHFWion of recent advances in several different technologies has made it practical.

Access to low-FRVW ORZ-power sensor technology. Affordable and reliable sensors are making IoT technology possible for more manufacturers.

Connectivity. A host of network protocols for the internet has made it easy to connect sensors to the cloud and to other “things” for efficient data transfer.

Cloud computing platforms. The increase in the availability of cloud platforms enables both businesses and consumers to access the infrastructure they need to scale up without having to manage it all.

Machine learning and analytics. With advances in machine learning and analyt-

LFV DORQJ ZLWK DFFHVV WR YDULHG DQG YDVW DPRXQWV RI GDWD VWRUHG LQ WKH FORXG EXVL nesses can gather insights faster and more easily. The emergence of these allied technologies continues to push the boundaries of IoT and the data produced by IoT also feeds these technologies.

Conversational artificial intelligence (AI). Advances in neural networks have brought natural-ODQJXDJH SURFHVVLQJ 1/3 Wo IoT devices (such as digital personal

DVVLVWDQWV $OH[D &RUWDQD DQG 6LUL DQG PDGH WKHP DSSHDOLQJ DIIRUGDEOH DQG YLDEOH for home use.

What industries can benefit from IoT?

2UJDQL]DWLRQV EHVW VXLted for IoT are those that would benefit from using sensor devices in their business processes.

Manufacturing

Manufacturers can gain a competitive advantage by using production-line monitoring to enable proactive maintenance on equipment when sensors detect an impending failure. Sensors can actually measure when production output is compro-

PLVHG :LWK WKH KHOS RI VHQVRU DOHUWV PDQXIDFWXUHUV FDQ TXLFNO\ FKHFN HTXLSPHnt for accuracy or remove it from production until it is repaired. This allows companies to reduce RSHUDWLQJ FRVWV JHW EHWWHU XSWLPH DQG LPSURYH DVVHW SHUIRrmance management.

Automotive

7KH DXWRPRWLYH LQGXVWU\ VWDQGV WR UHDOL]H VLJQLILFDQW DGYDQWDJHV IUom the use of IoT applications. In addition to the benefits of applying IoT to production lLQHV sensors can detect impending equipment failure in vehicles already on the road and can alert the driver with details and recommendations. Thanks to aggregated information gathered by IoT-based aSSOLFDWLRQV DXWRPRWLYH Panufacturers and suppliers can learn more about how to keep cars running and car owners informed.

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Transportation and logistical systems benefit from a variety of IoT applica-

WLRQV )OHHWV RI FDUV WUXFNV VKLSV DQG WUDLQV WKDW FDUU\ inventory can be rerouted

EDVHG RQ ZHDWKHU FRQGLWLRQV YHKLFOH DYDLODELOLW\ RU GULYHU DYDLODELOLW\ WKDQNV WR ,R7 sensor data. The inventory itself could also be equipped with sensors for track-and- trace and temperature-control monitoring. The food and bHYHUDJH IORZHU DQG SKDU maceutical industries often carry temperature-sensitive inventory that would benefit greatly from IoT monitoring applications that send alerts when temperatures rise or fall to a level that threatens the product.

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