Английский язык для бакалавров (товароведение во внешнеторговой деятельности) в 3 частях. Ч.1. Учебное пособие

empirical data and background knowledge. Thus construed, measurement accuracy can be evaluated by establishing robustness among the consequences of models representing different measurement processes.

Under the uncertainty-based conception, imprecision is a special type of inaccuracy. For example, the inaccuracy of weight measurements is the breadth of spread of values that are reasonably attributed to the object’s weight given the indications of the balance and available background knowledge about the way the balance works and the standard weights used. The imprecision of these measurements is the component of inaccuracy arising from uncontrolled variations to the indications of the balance over repeated trials. Other sources of inaccuracy besides imprecision include imperfect corrections to systematic errors, inaccurately known physical constants, and vague measurand definitions, among others.

Paul Teller (2013) raises a different objection to the error-based conception of measurement accuracy. He argues against an assumption he calls “measurement accuracy realism”, according to which measurable quantities have definite values in reality. Teller argues that this assumption is false insofar as it concerns the quantities habitually measured in physics, because any specification of definite values (or value ranges) for such quantities involves idealization and hence cannot refer to anything in reality.

For example, the concept usually understood by the phrase “the velocity of sound in air” involves a host of implicit idealizations concerning the uniformity of the air’s chemical composition, temperature and pressure as well as the stability of units of measurement. Removing these idealizations completely would require adding infinite amount of detail to each specification. As Teller argues, measurement accuracy should itself be understood as a useful idealization, namely as a concept that allows scientists to assess coherence and consistency among measurement outcomes as if the linguistic expression of these outcomes latched onto anything in the world. Precision is similarly an idealized concept, which is based on an open-ended and indefinite specification of what counts as repetition of measurement under “the same” circumstances.

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Task 7. Make up a dialogue according to the theme of text. Work in pairs and role-play it.

Task 8. Summarize the definitions:

–direct perception of truth, fact, etc., independent of any reasoning process; immediate apprehension;

–to examine (two or more objects, ideas, people, etc.) in order to note similarities and differences;

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–a word or group of words designating something, especially in a particular field, as atom in physics, quietism in theology, adze in carpentry, or district leader in politics;

–the worth of something in terms of the amount of other things for which it can be exchanged or in terms of some medium of exchange;

–the effect, result, or outcome of something occurring earlier.

Task 9. Unscramble the words.

REPCISINO

RACCCYUA

MECOTOU

TTIYANQU

RRROE

TRAEUCCAIN

TIONCADIIN

BLEALIVAA

CALRIPIME

CEAALNB

NIITEFED

Task 10. Translate from Russian into English.

Китайский онлайн-ритейлер Alibaba попал в черный список США

КрупнейшийкитайскийИнтернет-ритейлерAlibaba сновавключенвластямиСШАвсписок«пиратскихрынков» из-замассовыхпродажнелицен- зированной продукции.

Четыре года назад компания была исключена из списка, однако сейчас власти США заявляют, что через принадлежащую Alibaba Group онлайнплатформу Taobao проходит огромный объем контрафакта.

ПрезидентAlibaba Group Майкл Эванс заявил, что расстроен таким решением. По его словам, пока непонятно, «было ли оно принято на основании фактов или же продиктовано политической обстановкой».

Президент США Дональд Трамп в ходе своей кампании обвинял китайские компании в нарушении прав интеллектуальной собственности.

ПредставителиTaobao уверяют, чтоужесточилиправилаконтролязатоварами и требуют от поставщиков доказательств подлинности продукции.

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В мае руководство Международной коалиции по борьбе с контрафактнойпродукцией(IACC) приостановилочленствоAlibaba ворганизацииизза подозрений в нарушении авторских прав.

Более 250 компаний ‒ членов IACC пригрозили выходом из организации в знак протеста против членства китайского ритейлера.

Alibaba является крупнейшим китайским онлайн-ритейлером. В сентябре 2014 г. акции Alibaba Group успешно начали первую торговую сессию на Нью-Йоркской фондовой бирже.

(www.bbc.com)

Task 11. Grammar. Open the brackets using proper forms of the verbs.

Counterfeit currency warning to businesses in Fife

Police (issue) a warning after a number of Fife businesses reported fake money being used to buy goods.

A private hire driver in Glenrothes (report) a customer using a fake £20 note to pay for a fare on Friday.

Three further fake £20 notes (use) to pay for goods at the Booker Cash and Carry in Kirkcaldy over that weekend. Two further incidents (report) on Wednesday in Kirkcaldy.

A man (attempt) to buy goods using fake £50 notes at both the Sainsbury’s filling station and Next store at the Fife Central Retail Park in Kirkcaldy.

Sgt Chris Mutter, of Police Scotland, (say) inquiries (be) ongoing to establish if all the offences were linked.

He said: “While many of these notes can appear genuine at first glance, if they appropriately (scrutinize) or (test) they (confirm) as fraudulent and counter staff should be mindful of inspecting currency thoroughly before accepting it.” “Any customers who (come) in and (try) to use counterfeit currency to purchase goods should be reported to police immediately and, where possible, staff

should try to retain the notes so they can be analysed during our inquiries.”

Task 12. Summarize the basic facts of the Unit in writing in at least 5 sentences.

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UNIT 7. MEASUREMENT THEORY

Task 1. Read and translate the following text to fulfill the tasks below.

Statistics and the Theory of Measurement

No modern statistician can be unfamiliar with the fact that there are different interpretations of probability, that these lead to different schools of inference and that the conclusions drawn by these schools can differ. The dialogue about which is the ‘correct’ interpretation of probability has been long and often bitter, and is well documented in the statistical literature. Less well appreciated within the statistical community, however, is that there has also been a long and often equally acrimonious dialogue about the interpretation of measurement.

As with probability, different interpretations of measurement can lead to different consequences for inference and hence to different conclusions by virtue of the fact that different kinds of hypotheses must be formulated and models built. Confusion between these different kinds of hypotheses and models has led to confusion and considerable debate over the validity of the conclusions drawn. Much of this debate has been stimulated by controversy over the legitimacy of applying different classes of statistical methods to data arising from different kinds of measurement activity.

However, there is a complex interplay between transformations of variables, measurement theory, the precise nature of the research question being investigated and the meaningfulness of the results. Given the ubiquity of transformations in modern statistical analysis and the subtlety of formulating precise research questions, it is even more surprising that the statistical literature does not contain an extensive discussion of the meaning of measurement

There are aspects to the relationship between measurement and statistics that are beyond those covered in this paper, although inevitably intertwined with them. An important one, merely mentioned below in the context of the sort of underlying theories that should be built to model it, is accuracy of measurement. Bailar presented abroad overview of measurement accuracy, covering the notions of replication and reproducibility, and giving examples from a wide variety of areas. Closely related, but, as statisticians will be aware, not identical, is the concept of precision.

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Wise provided a collection of essays focusing on the historical development of the concept. A third, broader, aspect of the relationship between the two disciplines is the question of what to measure. Sometimes we shall choose to measure aproxy variable because the thing that we are really interested in is difficult or expensive to measure, or because it defies clear definition (see Section 2.2). The proxy variable may be well defined, it may be based on sound statistical principles and it may be precise, all features which make it attractive ‒ but using it as, for example, a control mechanism may lead to distortion of the objective.

Vocabulary

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Task 2. Answer following questions.

1.Is there a long and often equally acrimonious dialogue about the interpretation of measurement?

2.What kind of measurement activities do you know?

3.What kind of relationship between measurement and statistics exists?

4.Does the precise nature of the research question lie under investigation?

5.Can the proxy variable be well defined if based on sound statistical principles?

Task 3. Summarize the definitions:

–the science that deals with the collection, classification, analysis, andinterpretation of numerical facts or data, and that, by use of mathematical theories of probability,imposes order and regularity on aggregates of more or less disparate elements;

–a coherent group of tested general propositions, commonly regarded as correct, that can be usedas principles of explanation and prediction for a class of phenomena;

–the last main division of a discourse, usually containing a summing up of the points and a statement of opinion or decisions reached;

–a procedure, technique, or way of doing something, especially in accordance with a definite plan;

–the state or capacity of being everywhere, especially at the same time;

–omnipresence;

–being exactly that and neither more nor less;

–diligent and systematic inquiry or investigation into a subject in order to discover or revise facts, theories, applications, etc;

–similar or alike in every way.

Task 4. Unscramble the words.

FEFRETNDI

SIONLUCONC

POTHYSSEETH

RENCEINFE

SIONFUNOC

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CERPEIS

LEABARIAV

VESINEXTE

CALTINEDI

RESUAEM

SIMNAHCME

VETICOBJE

Task 5. Translate from Russian into English.

Производителей подделок вдохновляет Италия

Анна Рында Би-би-си, Москва

9 июля 2010

Италия больше других стран страдает от подделок модных брендов: ежегодно из-за продаж контрафактной продукции экономика страны, по подсчетам экспертов, теряет около 22 млрд евро (около 28 млрд долл.).

Как утверждает Итальянская конфедерация промышленников, если пресечь деятельность производителей и продавцов контрафакта, это помогло бы создать около 130 тыс. новых рабочих мест.

Товарооборот контрафакта в самой Италии оценивается в 7 млрд евро, при этом в 2009 г. удалось конфисковать поддельной продукции на сумму 1,15 млрд евро.

Министр Италии по европейским делам Андреа Рончи призвал граждан к ответственности, заявив, что те, кто покупают подделки, «спонсируют организованную преступность».

Представитель организации промышленников Италии предлагает публиковать в прессе фото тех производителей поддельной продукции, кого удалось разоблачить.

Проблема подделки продукции актуальна даже для продовольственного рынка.

В самой Италии покупатели тратят ежегодно 75 млрд долл. на продукты, которые были произведены совсем не теми компаниями, название которыхуказанонаэтикетке. Весьмапопулярныподделкипармскойветчины и сыров пармезан и моцарелла.

Больше всего денег на покупку поддельной продукции с именами итальянских производителей тратят жители Китая, Австралии и Аргентины, где, собственно, эти товары в значительной мере и производятся.

(www.bbc.com)

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Task 6. Read and translate the following text to fulfill the tasks below.

THREE THEORIES OF MEASUREMENT

1. Representational Measurement Theory

Representational measurement theory is the dominant current measurement paradigm. In fact, the phrase ‘measurement theory’ is often used as a shortened term for this particular theory. It originated around the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century with the work of von Helmholtz and Holder. The magnum opus of representational measurement theory is the three volume work Foundations of Measurement.

The approach adopted by this work, and by representational measurement theory in general, is made clear in the opening sentences of the preface: “Scattered about the literature of economics, mathematics, philosophy, physics, psychology, and statistics are axiom systems and theorems that are intended to explain why some attributes of objects, substances, and events can reasonably be represented numerically. . . . Although such systems are of some mathematical interest, they warrant our attention primarily as empirical theories -as attempts to formulate properties that are observed to be true about certain qualitative attributes.”

2. Operational Measurement Theory

Operationalism defines scientific concepts in terms of the operations used to identify or measure them. It avoids assuming an underlying reality and so is fundamentally different from representationalism, which is based on a mapping from an assumed underlying reality. In operationalism, things start with the measurement procedure. Operationalism was developed by Bridgman and adopted by Dingle, who summarized it thus: ‘Formerly science was regarded as the study of an external world, independent of the observer whose experiments and observations were simply means of finding out how the world was constructed and by what laws its behaviour was governed.

The emphasis has now shifted from the nature of the world to the operations of experiment and observations. These are no longer regarded as more or less arbitrary means of discovering the already established order of nature, but rather as affording primary data for rational study; and any world that we may contemplate is no longer an independent existence whose nature demands or determines them, but rather a logical construct, formed and shaped and modified so as to afford a true picture of the relations which the observations exhibit.’

3. Classical and Other Theories of Measurement

Subjective and frequentist interpretations of probability are but two of many. Indeed, even within these labels there are different schools of thought. Similar

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diversity applies to theories of measurement: there are other variants in addition to the representational and operational schools. Kyburg, for example, stated: “Most approaches to measurement that have been suggested in recent years have taken the process of measurement to be the assignment of numbers to objects and events. I have suggested that the value (or interval of values) assigned to an object or event by measurement is a magnitude (or interval of magnitudes), rather than a number.”

Task 7. Make up seven questions. Ask your partner to answer them.

Task 8. Summarize the definitions:

–a theoretical proposition, statement, or formula embodying something to be provedfrom other propositions or formulas;

–a self-evident truth that requires no proof;

–that of which a thing consists; physical matter or material;

–derived from or guided by experience or experiment;

–free from doubt or reservation; confident; sure.

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