Английский язык для бакалавров (товароведение во внешнеторговой деятельности) в 3 частях. Ч.1. Учебное пособие

Данные о лекарствах отслеживаются в специальной системе «Маркировка». Обязательную маркировку лекарств планируется ввести с 2020 г.

Судя по правительственному списку, маркировке с 2019 г. подлежат 10 категорий товаров: табачная продукция, духи и туалетная вода, шины ипокрышки, одежда(втомчислерабочая), блузки, блузыиблузоны, пальто, полупальто, накидки, куртки, белье постельное, обувь, фотокамеры, фотовспышки и лампы-вспышки.

С 1 марта 2019 г. обязательной станет маркировка табака, с 1 июля 2019 г. – обуви. Остальные категории планируется начать маркировать с 1 декабря 2019 г.

Какмаркироватьтакиетовары, непонятно: можнобиркамисQR-кодом, а можно нанометками ‒ зависит от стоимости товаров, писала газета «Ведомости» со ссылкой на неназванного чиновника.

Крометого, производителидолжныбудутоплачиватьстоимостьмаркировки оператору системы.

«Ведомости» пишут, что маркировка товаров может увеличить цену товара на 10%. Такую оценку дал топ-менеджер одного из производителей косметики и парфюмерии.

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Task 6. Read and translate the following text to fulfill the tasks below.

METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS

These are the methods of comparison used in measurement process. In precision measurement various methods of measurement are adopted depending upon the accuracy required and the amount of permissible error.

The methods of measurement can be classified as: l. Direct method, 2. Indirect method, 3. Absolute or Fundamental method, 4. Comparative method, 5. Transposition method, 6. Coincidence method, 7. Deflection method, 8. Complementary method, 9. Contact method, 10. Contact less method.

1. Direct method of measurement.

This is a simple method of measurement, in which the value of the quantity to be measured is obtained directly without any calculations. For example, measurements by using scales, vernier callipers, micrometers, bevel protector etc. This method is most widely used in production. This method is not very accurate because it depends on human insensitiveness in making judgment.

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2. Indirect method of measurement.

In indirect method the value of quantity to be measured is obtained by measuring other quantities which are functionally related to the required value. E.g. Angle measurement by sine bar, measurement of screw pitch diameter by three wire method etc.

3. Absolute or Fundamental method.

It is based on the measurement of the base quantities used to define the quantity. For example, measuring a quantity directly in accordance with the definition of that quantity, or measuring a quantity indirectly by direct measurement of the quantities linked with the definition of the quantity to be measured.

4. Comparative method.

In this method the value of the quantity to be measured is compared with known value of the same quantity or other quantity practically related to it. So, in this method only the deviations from a master gauge are determined, e.g., dial indicators, or other comparators.

5. Transposition method.

It is a method of measurement by direct comparison in which the value of the quantity measured is first balanced by an initial known value A of the same quantity, and then the value of the quantity measured is put in place of this known value and is balanced again by another known value B. If the position of the element indicating equilibrium is the same in both cases, the value of the quantity to be measured is AB. For example, determination of amass by means of a balance and known weights, using the Gauss double weighing.

6. Coincidence method.

It is a differential method of measurement in which a very small difference between the value of the quantity to be measured and the reference is determined by the observation of the coincidence of certain lines or signals. For example, measurement by vernier calliper micrometer.

7. Deflection method.

In this method the value of the quantity to be measured is directly indicated by a deflection of a pointer on a calibrated scale.

8. Complementary method.

In this method the value of the quantity to be measured is combined with a known value of the same quantity. The combination is so adjusted that the sum of these two values is equal to predetermined comparison value. For example, determination of the volume of a solid by liquid displacement.

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9. Method of measurement by substitution.

It is a method of direct comparison in which the value of a quantity to be measured is replaced by a known value of the same quantity, so selected that the effects produced in the indicating device by these two values are the same.

10. Method of null measurement.

It is a method of differential measurement. In this method the difference between the value of the quantity to be measured and the known value of the same quantity with which it is compared is brought to zero.

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Task 7. Make up seven questions. Ask your partner to answer them.

Task 8. Summarize the definitions:

–a particular or indefinite amount of anything;

–the ability to judge, make a decision, or form an opinion objectively, authoritatively, and wisely, especially in matters affecting action; good sense; discretion;

–to manage or guide by advice, helpful information, instruction, etc;

–a likening; illustration by similitude; comparative estimate or statement;

–a procedure, technique, or way of doing something, especially in accordance with a definite plan.

Task 9. Unscramble the words.

SUREAEM

THEODM

LARCUTIPAR

DGEJU

ROZE

NITEFIDE

LUEVA

UMELOV

UIDQIL

UNITYQTA

PAERMOC

TIONRUCSIN

VICEAD

Task 10. Translate from Russian into English.

Вамериканской системе вооружений широко распространено использование поддельных деталей и электронных устройств китайского производства, выявило расследование влиятельного Комитета сената США по делам вооруженных сил.

Всего в американской системе вооружений используются более миллионапредполагаемыхконтрафактныхкомплектующих, говоритсявдокладе.

Врезультате продолжавшегося год расследования удалось выяснить, что поддельные детали ‒ в большинстве своем электронные чипы ‒ находились

вкомпьютерах, управлявших ракетами, в самолетах и подводных лодках.

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70% поддельных компонентов могли прибыть из Китая, другие же ‒ из Великобритании и Канады.

Контрафактныедеталибыливкомплексахвооружений, приобретенных

укрупных производителей оружия, которые, в свою очередь, купили их

усубподрядчиков.

«Контрафактные электронные детали открыто продаются на рынках в Китае», ‒ говорится в докладе.

Также критике подверглось и минобороны США за то, что в ведомстве имеют весьма скудные сведения о том, сколько поддельных компонентов существует в системе вооружений.

Пословамавторовдоклада, контрафактныедеталимогутпоставитьпод угрозу национальную безопасность США.

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Task 11. Grammar. Open the brackets using proper forms of the verbs.

Veterinarian jailed for smuggling drugs in puppies.

Colombian veterinarian (sentence) to jail after (admit) to smuggling drugs into the US by (implant) heroin in live puppies.

Between 2004 and 2005, Andres Lopez Elorez (raise) dogs on a Colombian farm and (place) bags of liquid heroin inside the canines on behalf of drugs cartels.

On 1 January 2005, Elorez’s farm in Medellin, Columbia (search) by police, who (discover) the illicit drug mule operation.

Nine puppies (find), as well as 17 bags of liquid heroin (weigh) nearly three kilos.

Ten of the bags (discover) after being surgically removed from the puppies by authorities. Three later (die) after contracting viruses.

According to a justice department spokesman, two of the dogs (rescue) by officers (find) new homes with police.

Donna, a beagle, (adopt) by a Colombian National Police (CNP) officer and his family.

Heroina, a Rottweiler, (train) by the CNP to become a drug-sniffing dog. In 2015 he (arrest) in Spain and (bring) to the US to face drug-smuggling charges.

On Thursday a judge in Brooklyn (sentence) him to six years in jail.

Task 12. Summarize the basic facts of the Unit in writing in at least 5 sentences.

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UNIT 6. CATEGORIES OF METROLOGY

Task 1. Read and translate the following text to fulfill the tasks below.

Standardization and theory-ladenness of measurement

The development of model-based accounts discussed in the previous section is part of a larger, “epistemic turn” in the philosophy of measurement that occurred in the early 2000s. Rather than emphasizing the mathematical foundations, metaphysics or semantics of measurement, philosophical work in recent years tends to focus on the presuppositions and inferential patterns involved in concrete practices of measurement, and on the historical, social and material dimensions of measuring.

Central topics that fall under the purview of the epistemology of measurement include the conditions under which measurement produces knowledge; the content, scope, justification and limits of such knowledge; the reasons why particular methodologies of measurement and standardization succeed or fail in supporting particular knowledge claims, and the relationships between measurement and other knowledge-producing activities such as observation, theorizing, experimentation, modelling and calculation.

1. Standardization and scientific progress.

A topic that has attracted considerable philosophical attention in recent years is the selection and improvement of measurement standards. Generally speaking, to standardize a quantity concept is to prescribe a determinate way in which that concept is to be applied to concrete particulars. To standardize a measuring instrument is to assess how well the outcomes of measuring with that instrument fit the prescribed mode of application of the relevant concept. The term “measurement standard” accordingly has at least two meanings: on the one hand, it is commonly used to refer to abstract rules and definitions that regulate the use of quantity concepts, such as the definition of the meter. On the other hand, the term “measurement standard” is also commonly used to refer to the concrete artifacts and procedures that are deemed exemplary of the application of a quantity concept, such as the metallic bar that served as the standard meter until 1960. This duality in meaning reflects the dual nature of standardization, which involves both abstract and concrete aspects.

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2. Theory-ladenness of measurement.

As already discussed above, theory and measurement are interdependent both historically and conceptually. On the historical side, the development of theory and measurement proceeds through iterative and mutual refinements. On the conceptual side, the specification of measurement procedures shapes the empirical content of theoretical concepts, while theory provides a systematic interpretation for the indications of measuring instruments. This interdependence of measurement and theory may seem like a threat to the evidential role that measurement is supposed to play in the scientific enterprise. After all, measurement outcomes are thought to be able to test theoretical hypotheses, and this seems to require some degree of independence of measurement from theory. This threat is especially clear when the theoretical hypothesis being tested is already presupposed as part of the model of the measuring instrument.

A different sort of worry about the evidential function of measurement arises on the global scale, when the testing of entire theories is concerned. As Thomas Kuhn (1961) argues, scientific theories are usually accepted long before quantitative methods for testing them become available. The reliability of newly introduced measurement methods is typically tested against the predictions of the theory rather than the other way around. In Kuhn’s words, “The road from scientific law to scientific measurement can rarely be traveled in the reverse direction.” For example, Dalton’s Law, which states that the weights of elements in a chemical compound are related to each other in whole-number proportions, initially conflicted with some of the best known measurements of such proportions. It is only by assuming Dalton’s Law that subsequent experimental chemists were able to correct and improve their measurement techniques.

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Task 2. Answer following questions.

1.Under what conditions is measurement taken?

2.What does the “measurement standard” mean?

3.What is “evidential function”?

4.Is the term “measurement standard” also commonly used to the concrete artifacts and procedures?

5. What kind of interdependence of measurement and theory exists in metrology?

Task 3. Summarize the definitions:

–the rational investigation of the truths and principles of being, knowledge, or conduct;

–a coherent group of tested general propositions, commonly regarded as correct, that can be used as principles of explanation and prediction for a class of phenomena;

–the result or product of calculating;

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–bearing upon or connected with the matter in hand; pertinent;

–an idea of something formed by mentally combining all its characteristics or particulars; a construct;

–a mechanical tool or implement, especially one used for delicate or precision work;

–a project undertaken or to be undertaken, especially one that is important or difficult or that requires boldness or energy;

–the amount or quantity of heaviness or mass; amount a thing weighs.

Task 4. Unscramble the words.

PHYLOHPISO

MENTRESUREAEM

THEMATIMAALC

SYISCHPTAEM

DGELEWONK

TIVAONSEBO

TIONCULAALC

ARTDATS

TIONLICAPPA

MECOTUO

YREOTH

VETIATUAQ

Task 5. Translate from Russian into English.

Российская таможня хочет вскрывать посылки в поисках контрафакта

Федеральная таможенная служба России поддержала предложение Ассоциации компаний Интернет-торговли (АКИТ) вскрывать не менее 5% посылок из-за рубежа для выявления контрафакта, сообщил глава ФТС.

По его словам, сейчас сложно говорить, какой процент посылок было бы оптимально вскрывать для осуществления контроля.

«Нам бы не хотелось, чтобы нас обвиняли в излишнем чиновничьем рвении по этому поводу. Поэтому 5% или 25% – сложно сказать. Но такая контрольная цифра (5%) нас пока, наверное, устраивает», – сказал он.

Глава ФТС не уточнил, когда могут быть введены такие проверки. В настоящее время никаких нормативов по вскрытию посылок для выявления контрафакта не существует.

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По данным ФТС, за первые девять месяцев 2015 г. было изъято контрафактного товара на 3,5 млрд руб.

Ранее глава ФТС заявлял, что ведомству не нужно создавать новых инструментов для проверок посылок, поступающих из-за рубежа.

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Task 6. Read and translate the following text to fulfill the tasks below.

Accuracy and precision

Two key aspects of the reliability of measurement outcomes are accuracy and precision. Consider a series of repeated weight measurements performed on a particular object with an equal-arms balance. From a realist, “error-based” perspective, the outcomes of these measurements are accurate if they are close to the true value of the quantity being measured – in our case, the true ratio of the object’s weight to the chosen unit – and precise if they are close to each other. An analogy often cited to clarify the error-based distinction is that of arrows shot at a target, with accuracy analogous to the closeness of hits to the bull’s eye and precision analogous to the tightness of spread of hits.

Though intuitive, the error-based way of carving the distinction raises an epistemological difficulty. It is commonly thought that the exact true values of most quantities of interest to science are unknowable, at least when those quantities are measured on continuous scales. If this assumption is granted, the accuracy with which such quantities are measured cannot be known with exactitude, but only estimated by comparing inaccurate measurements to each other. And yet it is unclear why convergence among inaccurate measurements should be taken as an indication of truth. After all, the measurements could be plagued by a common bias that prevents their individual inaccuracies from cancelling each other out when averaged. In the absence of cognitive access to true values, how is the evaluation of measurement accuracy possible?

In answering this question, philosophers have benefited from studying the various senses of the term “measurement accuracy” as used by practicing scientists. At least five different senses have been identified: metaphysical, epistemic, operational, comparative and pragmatic. In particular, the epistemic or “uncer- tainty-based” sense of the term is metaphysically neutral and does not presuppose the existence of true values.

Instead, the accuracy of a measurement outcome is taken to be the closeness of agreement among values reasonably attributed to a quantity given available

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